Fig. 4.

PA results in increased production of IL-1β. PA increases the production of IL-1β at various levels of this cytokine synthesis. First, PA activates NF-κB, which increases the expression levels of pre-IL-1β mRNA. Second, PA can increase the stability of this transcript by destabilizing lysosomes, releasing from them the Ca²⁺ ions and thereby activating calcineurin. Finally, PA activates NLRP3 inflammasome, which is associated with increased TXNIP expression, or released mitochondrial DNA to the cytoplasm