Figure 2.

Mechanisms involved in urso- and tauroursodeoxycholic acid neuroprotective effects in retinal disease. Antiapoptotic (orange), anti-inflammatory (blue), and antioxidant effects of biliary acids described in retinal disease models, at the level of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), photoreceptors (PRs), RPE, and the blood–retinal barrier (BRB; vascular endothelial cells, pericytes, and microglia). ER: endoplasmic reticulum; AIF: apoptosis- inducing factor; NF-kB: nuclear factor-kappa B; TNF: tumor necrosis factor; IL: interleukin, ICAM: intercellular cell adhesion molecule; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor.