Table 4.
Results of the generalized estimating equations of symptoms of PND with infant-feeding outcomes across time
| Variables | Exclusive breastfeeding | Partial breastfeeding | Formula feeding | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β | 95% CI | β | 95% CI | β | 95% CI | ||||
| Maternal educational attainment | |||||||||
| ≥ College graduate (ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| ≤ Junior school | −0.001 | − 0.062 | 0.061 | − 0.005 | − 0.064 | 0.053 | − 0.078 | − 0.185 | 0.029 |
| High school | − 0.002 | − 0.032 | 0.029 | − 0.016 | − 0.046 | 0.013 | 0.015 | − 0.032 | 0.061 |
| Maternal age (years) | |||||||||
| 25–29 (ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| ≤ 24 | 0.027 | −0.018 | 0.071 | 0.036 | −0.006 | 0.078 | −0.022 | −0.089 | 0.046 |
| 30–34 | 0.000 | −0.024 | 0.024 | 0.001 | −0.023 | 0.024 | 0.005 | −0.029 | 0.038 |
| ≥ 35 | 0.020 | −0.012 | 0.053 | 0.035* | 0.005 | 0.065 | −0.027 | −0.075 | 0.022 |
| Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | |||||||||
| 18.5–23.9 (ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| < 18.5 | −0.198* | −0.333 | −0.064 | − 0.263* | −0.394 | − 0.133 | 0.213* | 0.136 | 0.290 |
| ≥ 24 | −0.006 | −0.032 | 0.020 | 0.022 | −0.004 | 0.047 | −0.022 | −0.058 | 0.013 |
| Household income (yuan) | |||||||||
| 5001–10,000 (ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| ≤ 2000 | 0.072 | −0.008 | 0.152 | −0.027 | −0.091 | 0.037 | 0.072 | −0.008 | 0.152 |
| 2001–5000 | 0.019 | −0.012 | 0.050 | −0.010 | −0.031 | 0.011 | 0.019 | −0.012 | 0.050 |
| > 10,000 | 0.057 | −0.020 | 0.135 | −0.072 | −0.147 | 0.003 | 0.057 | −0.020 | 0.135 |
| Initiation of breastfeeding (hours) | |||||||||
| < 1 (ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 1–24 | 0.005 | −0.028 | 0.038 | 0.010 | −0.020 | 0.039 | 0.003 | −0.043 | 0.048 |
| ≥ 24 | −0.035* | −0.074 | − 0.005 | −0.044* | − 0.083 | −0.004 | 0.037 | −0.014 | 0.089 |
| Delivery mode | |||||||||
| Vaginal delivery (ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Cesarean delivery | −0.043* | −0.066 | − 0.021 | −0.016 | − 0.038 | 0.006 | 0.063* | 0.031 | 0.094 |
| Screen-positive symptoms of PND | |||||||||
| No (ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Yes | −0.049* | − 0.101 | −0.004 | − 0.082* | −0.140 | − 0.024 | 0.074* | 0.014 | 0.134 |
| Gestational age (weeks) | |||||||||
| 37–42 (ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 28–36 | −0.009 | −0.055 | 0.038 | −0.029 | − 0.105 | 0.047 | − 0.003 | −0.052 | 0.047 |
| Parity | |||||||||
| Nulliparous (ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Multiparous | −0.015 | −0.039 | 0.010 | −0.005 | − 0.028 | 0.019 | 0.017 | −0.018 | 0.052 |
| Miscarriage | |||||||||
| No (ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Yes | 0.010 | −0.011 | 0.031 | −0.017 | − 0.038 | 0.005 | − 0.006 | −0.037 | 0.025 |
| Pregnancy-related complications | |||||||||
| No (ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Yes | 0.007 | −0.024 | 0.039 | 0.000 | −0.032 | 0.032 | −0.009 | −0.054 | 0.036 |
| Passive smoking during pregnancy | |||||||||
| No (ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Yes | 0.014 | −0.021 | 0.049 | 0.013 | −0.019 | 0.044 | 0.016 | −0.031 | 0.064 |
| Using bottle/ nipple before breastfeeding | |||||||||
| No (ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Yes | −0.009 | − 0.040 | 0.023 | − 0.004 | −0.034 | 0.026 | 0.005 | −0.039 | 0.048 |
* P < 0.05
a BMI body mass index, CI confidence interval, PND postnatal depression