Table 1.
Baseline Characteristics of 2007–2010 Wisconsin Birth Records that Linked to PALS-K Tests (n = 153,145)
| Characteristic | Mean (SD) or % | Mean PALS-K Score (SD), Range 0–102 |
Mean Standardized PALS-K Scorea (SD) |
Met PALS-K Literacy Benchmarkb, % |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall | 64.89 (23.14) | 0.00 (1.00) | 91.6 | |
| Birth Year Cohort | ||||
| 2007 | 28.5 | 64.25 (23.04) | −0.03 (1.00) | 91.4 |
| 2008 | 28.0 | 65.18 (23.05) | 0.01 (1.00) | 91.8 |
| 2009 | 27.2 | 65.78 (23.16) | 0.04 (1.00) | 92.0 |
| 2010 | 16.3 | 64.03 (23.39) | −0.04 (1.01) | 90.7 |
| Gestational age (weeks) | 38.93 (1.73)c | |||
| <32 (very preterm) | 0.7 | 56.42 (25.90) | −0.37 (1.12) | 82.0 |
| 32–35 (preterm) | 2.8 | 59.62 (24.48) | −0.23 (1.06) | 87.3 |
| 36 (late preterm) | 2.8 | 61.84 (23.82) | −0.13 (1.03) | 89.4 |
| 37–38 (early term) | 22.3 | 63.52 (23.46) | −0.06 (1.01) | 90.6 |
| 39–41 (term) | 70.3 | 65.72 (22.85) | 0.04 (0.99) | 92.2 |
| 42 (post-term) | 1.0 | 66.79 (22.91) | 0.08 (0.99) | 92.8 |
| Maternal age (years) | 27.38 (5.67)c | |||
| <20 | 8.8 | 55.47 (24.21) | −0.401 (1.05) | 83.9 |
| 20–24 | 23.8 | 59.71 (23.73) | −0.22 (1.03) | 88.0 |
| 25–34 | 56.1 | 67.73 (22.16) | 0.12 (0.96) | 93.7 |
| 35–39 | 9.6 | 69.15 (21.79) | 0.18 (0.94) | 94.7 |
| 40+ | 1.8 | 68.26 (22.18) | 0.15 (0.96) | 93.8 |
| Maternal education | ||||
| 1–3 years HS | 10.1 | 51.25 (24.59) | −0.59 (1.06) | 79.0 |
| HS graduate/equivalent | 30.8 | 58.89 (23.58) | −0.26 (1.02) | 87.5 |
| 1–3 years college | 28.7 | 65.48 (21.80) | 0.03 (0.94) | 93.5 |
| 4 years college | 21.1 | 74.25 (18.90) | 0.40 (0.82) | 97.9 |
| 5+ years college | 9.3 | 76.56 (18.04) | 0.50 (0.78) | 98.4 |
| Maternal race/ethnicity | ||||
| Asian NH | 1.2 | 62.06 (24.64) | −0.12 (1.06) | 88.7 |
| Black NH | 9.3 | 57.23 (25.34) | −0.33 (1.10) | 84.0 |
| Hispanic | 4.1 | 55.37 (25.27) | −0.41 (1.09) | 82.1 |
| Native American NH | 1.8 | 52.88 (24.64) | −0.52 (1.06) | 80.1 |
| Other NH | 0.0 | 62.60 (25.97) | −0.10 (1.12) | 86.8 |
| White NH | 83.6 | 66.51 (22.34) | 0.07 (0.97) | 93.2 |
| Maternal marital status | ||||
| Unmarried | 39.1 | 58.06 (24.02) | −0.29 (1.04) | 86.4 |
| Married | 60.9 | 69.27 (21.44) | 0.19 (0.93) | 94.9 |
| Medicaid coverage | ||||
| Yes | 39.0 | 57.29 (24.10) | −0.33 (1.04) | 85.7 |
| No | 61.0 | 69.74 (21.13) | 0.21 (0.91) | 95.3 |
| Parity | ||||
| First birth | 41.2 | 66.94 (22.67) | 0.09 (0.98) | 92.9 |
| Second birth | 33.7 | 65.85 (22.54) | 0.04 (0.97) | 92.7 |
| Third birth | 16.0 | 61.98 (23.50) | −0.13 (1.02) | 89.8 |
| Fourth or later birth | 9.1 | 57.17 (24.70) | −0.33 (1.07) | 84.7 |
| Child’s sex | ||||
| Female | 49.2 | 67.39 (22.08) | 0.11 (0.95) | 93.4 |
| Male | 50.8 | 62.47 (23.88) | −0.10 (1.03) | 89.8 |
Abbreviations: HS, high school; NH, non-Hispanic, PALS-K, Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening-Kindergarten; SD, standard deviation.
a
We standardized the PALS-K score to mean 0 and standard deviation 1.
b
The PALS-K benchmark is a score of 28 points or greater on the test (range: 0–102 points). Failure to meet the benchmark signals that a child may need early literacy intervention.
c
Mean value (standard deviation).