Table 2.
Ordinary Least Squares Regressionsa of PALS-K Outcomes on Gestational Age in Completed Weeks (n = 153,145)
| Outcome: Standardized PALS-K Scoreb | Outcome: Probability of Meeting Literacy Benchmarkc, Percentage Points |
|
|---|---|---|
| β Coefficient (95% CI) | β Coefficient (95% CI) | |
| MODEL 1: NO INTERACTIONS | ||
| Gestational Age (week) | 0.03 (0.02, 0.03) | 0.54 (0.43, 0.61) |
| Medicaid Delivery Coverage | ||
| Non-Medicaid | 0.00 (Reference) | 0.00 (Reference) |
| Medicaid | −0.16 (−0.17, −0.15) | −3.16 (−3.56, −2.75) |
| Maternal Education | ||
| 1–3 years HS | −0.23 (−0.25, −0.21) | −6.29 (−7.05, −5.54) |
| HS Grad/equivalent | 0.00 (Reference) | 0.00 (Reference) |
| 1–3 years college | 0.19 (0.17, 0.20) | 4.10 (3.70, 4.49) |
| 4 years college | 0.44 (0.43, 0.46) | 6.22 (5.82, 6.61) |
| 5+ years college | 0.52 (0.51, 0.54) | 6.46 (6.03, 6.88) |
| Maternal Age | ||
| <20 years | −0.14 (−0.16, −0.11) | −1.59 (−2.37, −0.81) |
| 20–24 years | −0.08 (−0.10, −0.07) | −1.12 (−1.56, −0.69) |
| 25–34 years | 0.00 (Reference) | 0.00 (Reference) |
| 35–39 years | 0.04 (0.02, 0.05) | 0.73 (0.33, 1.13) |
| 40+ years | 0.05 (0.01, 0.08) | 0.74 (−0.16, 01.63) |
| Maternal Race/Ethnicity | ||
| Asian NH | 0.02 (−0.03, 0.07) | −1.02 (−2.50, 0.46) |
| Black NH | 0.02 (0.00, 0.04) | −1.93 (−2.60, −1.26) |
| Hispanic | −0.13 (−0.16, −0.10) | −5.01 (−5.98, −4.04) |
| Native Am. NH | −0.25 (−0.29, −0.21) | −7.41 (−8.92, −5.90) |
| Other NH | 0.08 (−0.19, 0.34) | −2.69 (−11.56, 6.18) |
| White NH | 0.00 (Reference) | 0.00 (Reference) |
| Maternal Marital Status | ||
| Married | 0.00 (Reference) | 0.00 (Reference) |
| Unmarried | −0.10 (−0.12, −0.09) | −1.41 (−1.83, −0.98) |
| Parity | ||
| First birth | 0.00 (Reference) | 0.00 (Reference) |
| Second birth | −0.12 (−0.13, −0.11) | −1.35 (−1.64, −1.05) |
| Third birth | −0.24 (−0.26, −0.23) | −3.31 (−3.74, −2.88) |
| Fourth or later birth | −0.35 (−0.37, −0.33) | −6.39 (−7.04, −5.73) |
| Child’s Sex | ||
| Female | 0.00 (Reference) | 0.00 (Reference) |
| Male | −0.21 (−0.22, −0.20) | −3.64 (−3.91, −3.37) |
| MODEL 2: MEDICAID DELIVERY COVERAGE INTERACTION | ||
| Gestational Age (week) | 0.02 (0.02, 0.03) | 0.32 (0.23, 0.42) |
| Gestational Age*Medicaid Delivery Coverage | ||
| Non-Medicaid | 0.00 (Reference) | 0.00 (Reference) |
| Medicaid | 0.01 (0.00, 0.01) | 0.47 (0.27, 0.66) |
| MODEL 3: MATERNAL EDUCATION INTERACTION | ||
| Gestational Age (week) | 0.03 (0.02, 0.03) | 0.72 (0.54, 0.90) |
| Gestational Age*Maternal Education | ||
| 1–3 years HS | −0.00 (−0.01, 0.01) | −0.11 (−0.50, 0.28) |
| HS grad/equivalent | 0.00 (Reference) | 0.00 (Reference) |
| 1–3 years college | 0.01 (−0.00, 0.01) | −0.24 (−0.47, −0.01) |
| 4 years college | 0.00 (−0.01, 0.01) | −0.38 (−0.60, −0.15) |
| 5+ years college | −0.01 (−0.02, −0.00) | −0.63 (−0.87, −0.39) |
| MODEL 4: MATERNAL AGE INTERACTION | ||
| Gestational Age (week) | 0.03 (0.02, 0.03) | 0.43 (0.32, 0.54) |
| Gestational Age*Maternal Age | ||
| <20 years | −0.01 (−0.02, −0.00) | 0.01 (−0.35, 0.37) |
| 20–24 years | 0.01 (0.00, 0.01) | 0.33 (0.01. 0.57) |
| 25–34 years | 0.00 (Reference) | 0.00 (Reference) |
| 35–39 years | 0.00 (−0.01, 0.01) | 0.12 (−0.16, 0.39) |
| 40+ years | 0.01 (−0.01, 0.03) | −0.00 (−0.58, 0.57) |
| MODEL 5: MATERNAL RACE/ETHNICITY INTERACTION | ||
| Gestational Age (week) | 0.03 (0.02, 0.03) | 0.50 (0.41, 0.60) |
| Gestational Age*Maternal Race/Ethnicity | ||
| Asian NH | 0.00 (−0.02, 0.03) | 0.22 (−0.66, 1.11) |
| Black NH | 0.00 (−0.01, 0.01) | 0.04 (−0.28, 0.36) |
| Hispanic | 0.00 (−0.01, 0.02) | 0.22 (−0.36, 0.80) |
| Native Am. NH | −0.01 (−0.03, 0.02) | 0.22 (−0.70, 1.14) |
| Other NH | 0.01 (−0.16, 0.17) | −3.45 (−7.55, 6.59) |
| White NH | 0.00 (Reference) | 0.00 (Reference) |
| MODEL 6: MATERNAL MARITAL STATUS INTERACTION | ||
| Gestational Age (week) | 0.03 (0.02, 0.03) | 0.45 (0.35, 0.55) |
| Gestational Age*Maternal Marital Status | ||
| Married | 0.00 (Reference) | 0.00 (Reference) |
| Unmarried | −0.00 (−0.01, 0.00) | 0.12 (−0.06, 0.31) |
Abbreviations: Am, American; β, beta; CI, confidence interval; grad, graduate; HS, high school; NH, non-Hispanic; PALS-K, Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening – Kindergarten.
a
All regressions adjusted for maternal age, maternal education, maternal race/ethnicity, maternal marital status, Medicaid delivery coverage, parity, and child’s sex. Regressions cluster standard errors at the mother level.
b
We standardized the PALS-K score to mean 0 and standard deviation 1.
c
The PALS-K benchmark is a score of 28 points or greater on the test (range: 0–102 points). Failure to meet the benchmark signals that a child may need early literacy intervention.