Table 3.
Characteristics of studies focused on Low Socioeconomic Status (SES).
| First author (year)1 | Sample description | Data years | N (% female)2 | Study description & main findings | Tobacco product | Scientific domains |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Higgins et al. (2016) | U.S. National Sample | 2011–2013 | 114,426 (19%) | Three years of cross-sectional NSDUH3 survey data were pooled to examine risk factors for current smoking. Age, gender, race/ethnicity, educational attainment, poverty, alcohol use disorders, substance use disorders and mental illness were all independently associated with smoking; effects of risk-factor combinations were typically summative. | Cigarettes | Behavior |
| Roberts et al. (2017) | U.S. National Sample | 2013–2014 | 32,320 (52%) | Compared prevalence of using traditional and emerging tobacco products using Wave 1 of the PATH4 Study. Dual use of traditional tobacco products was more prevalent in rural than urban areas. Although emerging tobacco products were more prevalent among urban than rural subpopulations (e.g., e-cigarettes among men, hookah among women), rural/urban status did not reliably predict single or dual use of emerging tobacco products when adjusting for sociodemographic covariates. | Cigarettes, ENDS5, Cigars, Cigarillos, SLT6, Pipes, Hookah | Behavior |
| White et al. (2016) | U.S. National Sample | 2012 | 37,869 (51.9%) | Cross-sectional NSDUH survey data were used to examine risk factors for current cigarette and SLT use. Past year diagnosis of major depressive disorder, along with other demographic predictors, contributed to odds of smoking but not SLT use. Dependence on alcohol, marijuana, heroin, and cocaine were associated with cigarette use; all except cocaine dependence were also associated with SLT use. | Cigarettes, SLT | Behavior |
| Stanton et al. (2016) | U.S. National Sample | 2005–2013 | 335,080 (51.9%) | Trends in tobacco use among those with chronic health conditions were examined using NSDUH years 2005–2013. Cigarette smoking declined for adults without a chronic condition but stayed stable for those with one more conditions. Other tobacco product use either remained stable or increased overtime for adults with chronic conditions. | Cigarettes, Cigars, SLT, Pipe | Behavior |
| Higgins et al. (2017a) | U.S. National Sample | 2011–2013 | 114,426 (NR)7 | Three years of cross-sectional NSDUH survey data were pooled to examine risk factors for smoking higher-vs. lower-nicotine yield cigarettes. Age, gender, race/ethnicity, educational attainment, poverty, substance use disorders and mental illness were independent risk factors for using higher-nicotine cigarettes, with lower education being the strongest risk factor. Use of higher-nicotine cigarettes increased risk of dependence. | Cigarettes | Addiction, Behavior |
| Gaalema et al. (2018a) | U.S. National Sample | 2013–2015 | 23,262 (47%) | PATH data (Waves 1 and 2) were used to assess tobacco use among cardiac patients and those with risk factors for heart disease. Smokers who had a recent or lifetime myocardial infarction (MI) believed that smoking was causing/worsening a health problem. Having a recent MI increased attempts to quit/reduce combustible cigarettes, but follow up data did not predict cessation of combusted product use at W2. | Cigarettes, ENDS, Cigars, SLT, Snus, Pipes, Dissolvables, Hookah | Addiction, Behavior |
| Higgins et al. (2017a) | Smokers with affective disorders, opioid dependence, and low SES women in Vermont, Rhode Island, and Maryland | 2015–2016 | 169 (71%) | Multi-site, double-blind, within-participant laboratory assessment of subjective and behavioral responses to cigarettes varying in nicotine content. Reducing the nicotine content of cigarettes reduced subjective and behavioral indicators of cigarette addiction liability across populations. | Research cigarettes | Addiction, Behavior, Impact Analysis, Toxicity |
| Arger et al., (2017) | Smokers with affective disorders, opioid dependence, and low SES women in Vermont, Rhode Island, and Maryland | 2015–2016 | 169 (71%) | Secondary analysis of a multi-site, double-blind, within-participant laboratory assessment of responses to cigarettes varying in nicotine content. Across populations, Satisfaction and Aversion sub scale scores on the Modified Cigarette Evaluation Questionnaire predicted cigarette choices as measured using a concurrent-choice behavioral task. | Research cigarettes | Addiction, Behavior, Impact Analysis |
| Higgins et al. (2017a) | Non-pregnant smokers in Vermont | NR | 9 (100%) | Multi-site, double-blind, within-participant laboratory assessment of subjective and behavioral responses to cigarettes varying in nicotine content. Across populations, participants rated the VLNC8 cigarettes lower in satisfaction and made fewer choices for these puffs relative to NNC cigarette puffs in concurrent choice testing. All cigarettes reduced withdrawal symptoms and none increased puff intensity. | Research cigarettes Research cigarettes | Addiction, Behavior, Impact Analysis, Toxicity |
| Higgins et al. (2018) | Smokers with affective disorders, opioid dependence, and low SES women in Vermont, Rhode Island, and Maryland | 2015–2016 | 169 (71%) | Secondary analysis of a multi-site, double-blind, within-participant laboratory assessment of responses to cigarettes varying in nicotine content, in which dependence severity was examined as a moderator of responses. Across populations, dependence severity did not moderate effects of nicotine content on measures of addiction liability or withdrawal, and had minimal effects on craving and topography. | Addiction, Behavior, Impact Analysis, Toxicity | |
| Gaalema et al. (2017) | Cardiac rehab-ilitation patients in Vermont | 2010–2014 | 1658 (27.2%) | Medical data extraction identifying patient characteristics associated with cardiac rehabilitation adherence. The highest-risk profile for non-adherence were patients younger than 65?years of age who currently smoked and had lower-SES. | Cigarettes | Behavior |
| Nayak et al. (2016) | U.S. National Sample | 2014 | 1262 (49.3%) | Cross-sectional survey of a national probability sample found a higher proportion of dual users (cigarettes? +?ENDS) were college graduates versus cigarette-only smokers. Dual users were more likely to endorse intention to quit or to have made a quit attempt in the past year compared to cigarette-only smokers. Among dual users, those with a college degree had higher odds of intention to quit or of attempting to quit in the past year versus those with a high school education or less. | Cigarettes, ENDS | Addiction, Behavior |
| Shang et al. (2017) | Nationally represent-ative sample from 18 different countries | 2008–2013 | 215, 655 (52.3%) | Person-level tobacco use data pooled from 18 countries was linked to warning label requirements in the same time period. Large pictorial warning labels (covering = 50% of front and back of cigarette pack) were associated with lower smoking prevalence among adults with less than a secondary education or no education, but not among adults with at least a secondary education. | Cigarettes | Behavior, Impact Analysis, Communications |
| Lopez et al. (2018) | U.S. National Sample | 2013–2014 | 12,848 (100%) | Cross-sectional study examining prevalence and correlates of current use of various tobacco products among non-pregnant women who completed Wave 1 of the PATH study. Overall prevalence was highest for cigarettes, and use of all alternative tobacco products was higher among current smokers vs. former or never-smokers. Socioeconomic variables were associated with current use of cigarettes and alternative tobacco products, with cigarette smoking being the strongest predictor of using e-cigarettes, hookah, and cigars. | Cigarettes, ENDS, Cigars, SLT, Snus, Pipes, Dissolvables, Hookah | Behavior |
| Roberts et al. (2016a) | U.S. National Sample | 1995–2006 | 4766 (53%) | MIDUS9 survey participants were followed up 10?years later to examine if late onset smoking10 among African Americans is protective in terms of quitting and health outcomes compared to early-onset smoking. African American smokers had a later onset to smoking compared to white smokers. Late-onset African American smokers had lower quit rates compared to early-onset African American smokers, and African American smokers hazard rates for mortality were similar regardless of smoking onset. | Cigarettes | Behavior, Health Effects |
| Chivers et al. (2016) | Non-pregnant women recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk | 2014 | 800 (100%) | Online survey data were used to examine risk factors for e-cigarette use among women of reproductive age who were either daily smokers or never smokers. E-cigarette use was associated with greater nicotine dependence and attempts to quit among current smokers. E-cigarette use was associated with greater impulsivity and illegal drug use among never smokers. | Cigarettes, ENDS | Addiction, Behavior |
| Brasky et al. (2018) | Rural and Urban tobacco users in Ohio | 2014–2016 | 1210 (44%) | Tobacco users in rural and urban counties in Ohio were interviewed to identify characteristics associated with use of tobacco products. Tobacco use behaviors and demographics differed by geographic region. | Cigarettes, SLT, ENDS | Behavior |
| Bergeria et al. (2018) | Pregnant and non-pregnant smokers in Vermont | 2015–2016 | 109 (100%) | Experimental study examining whether disadvantaged women who reduced their cigarettes per day upon entering pregnancy were engaging in compensatory smoking relative to their non-smoking counterparts. Smoking topography, craving, and withdrawal did not differ between the two groups, but pregnant women had a significantly smaller CO boost after smoking and reported less pleasure from smoking relative to non-pregnant women. | Cigarettes | Addiction, Behavior, Health Effects |
| White et al. (2014) | Pregnant women in Vermont | NR | 349 (100%) | Secondary analysis examining educational attainment, pre-pregnancy smoking rate, and delay discounting as predictors of spontaneous quitting among pregnant smokers. Regression models adjusting for other predictors indicated that education and pre-pregnancy cigarettes per day were strong predictors of spontaneous quitting, whereas delay discounting predicted spontaneous quitting only among women with lower pre-pregnancy smoking rates. | Cigarettes | Addiction, Behavior |
| Vurbic et al. (2015) | U.S. National Sample | 2007–2010 | 2477 (100%) | Examined effects of co-occurring obesity, smoking, and socioeconomic status on health outcomes among non-pregnant women who completed the NHANES11 survey. Prevalence of co-occurring obesity and smoking increased as educational attainment decreased, and adverse health conditions (e.g., physical limitations, depression, high cholesterol) were more common among obese smokers vs. women who were obese or smokers alone. | Cigarettes | Health effects |
| Klein et al. (2015) | Rural smokers in Ohio | 2013 | 296 (66%) | Experimental study comparing effectiveness of text only vs text? +?GHWs12 embedded within cigarette advertisements. GHW messages attracted more attention and generated greater message recall than text-only labels. | Cigarettes | Impact Analysis, Communications |
| Lee et al. (2015) | FDA warning letters from advertising and labeling inspections | 2014 | 718 warning letters | Cross-sectional study of neighborhood characteristics and retailer noncompliance with FDA advertising and regulation inspections. Regulated tobacco products were more likely to be stored behind the counter in African American and Hispanic/Latino neighborhoods, and single cigarettes were more available in neighborhoods with increased African Americans, young people, and individuals living below poverty. | Any tobacco | Impact Analysis, Marketing Influences |
| Roberts et al. (2015) | Rural and Urban stores | 2014 | 199 stores (50% rural) | Observational study examined and compared external, point-of-sale exposure to tobacco marketing in rural vs urban areas. Promotions for e-cigarettes and advertising for menthol cigarettes, cigarillos, and cigars were more likely in urban, particularly highly disadvantaged, African American communities. | Cigarettes, ENDS, Cigars, Cigarillos, SLT | Impact Analysis, Marketing Influences |
| Cohn et al. (2018) | U.S. National Sample | 2013–2014 | NR | Used data from Wave 1 of the PATH study to examine correlates of menthol smoking among the top three cigarette brands, effects of menthol smoking on harm perceptions of one’s usual brand cigarettes, and interactions with demographic variables. Menthol smokers were more likely to view their own brand as more harmful than other brands vs non-menthol smokers, with race and gender moderating the association between menthol brand preference and harm perceptions. | Cigarettes | Addiction, Behavior |
1
Shared superscripts indicate shared samples across studies.
2
All of the studies described the gender/sex breakdown of their participants as male and/or female or as men and/or women. The studies did not address whether participants self-reported their assigned sex at birth and/or their gender identity at the time of the survey.
3
National Survey on Drug Use and Health.
4
Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health.
5
Electronic Nicotine Delivery System.
6
Smokeless tobacco.
7
Not reported or could not be determined.
8
Very Low Nicotine Content.
9
National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States.
10
Defined as regular smoking beginning at 18?years or beyond.
11
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.
12
Graphic Health Warnings.