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. 2019 Sep 9;188(11):1913–1922. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwz181

Table 2.

Associations of Prenatal, Perinatal, and Postnatal Factors With Predicted Systolic Blood Pressure in Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence Among Participants Recruited Into Project Viva in 1999–2002, Boston, Massachusetts

Maternal or Child Factor Child’s Age and Mean Difference in Predicted Systolic BP, mm Hg
No. of Subjects 6 Months 3 Years 6 Years 9 Years 12 Years 15 Years 18 Years
β 95% CI β 95% CI β 95% CI β 95% CI β 95% CI β 95% CI β 95% CI
Maternal prenatal factorsa
 Age, years (per 5-year increase) 1,370 0.10 −1.13, 1.33 0.54 −0.17, 1.24 0.19 −0.24, 0.62 −0.16 −0.64, 0.32 −0.05 −0.44, 0.35 0.07 −0.47, 0.61 0.18 −0.62, 0.99
 Prepregnancy BMIb (per 5-unit increase) 1,370 0.02 −0.99, 1.03 0.11 −0.52, 0.74 0.43 0.05, 0.82 0.76 0.32, 1.19 0.69 0.34, 1.05 0.63 0.14, 1.11 0.56 −0.15, 1.28
 Smoking history (vs. having never smoked) 1,370
  Smoked before pregnancy 2.35 −0.16, 4.86 1.23 −0.25, 2.70 1.01 0.10, 1.92 0.79 −0.25, 1.83 0.77 −0.08, 1.63 0.76 −0.41, 1.92 0.74 −0.99, 2.47
  Smoked during pregnancy 1.41 −2.26, 5.08 1.26 −0.89, 3.42 1.24 −0.10, 2.59 1.22 −0.40, 2.85 1.20 −0.12, 2.51 1.17 −0.68, 3.03 1.15 −1.65, 3.94
 Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (vs. normal blood pressure) 1,370
  Gestational hypertension or preeclampsia 2.74 −0.53, 6.01 0.93 −1.14, 3.00 1.39 0.10, 2.67 1.84 0.34, 3.34 1.70 0.48, 2.92 1.55 −0.12, 3.23 1.41 −1.09, 3.90
  Chronic hypertension 1.17 −6.71, 9.04 −0.92 −5.78, 3.94 0.04 −2.90, 2.98 1.01 −2.22, 4.23 1.34 −1.42, 4.09 1.67 −2.11, 5.45 2.00 −3.53, 7.53
 Glucose tolerance status (vs. normoglycemia) 1,370
  Isolated hyperglycemia 1.13 −2.58, 4.84 0.75 −1.34, 2.85 1.34 0.04, 2.63 1.92 0.40, 3.44 2.33 1.08, 3.58 2.74 1.01, 4.46 3.15 0.59, 5.71
  Impaired glucose tolerance 3.59 −1.95, 9.12 −1.21 −4.49, 2.07 −1.47 −3.48, 0.54 −1.72 −3.98, 0.54 −1.41 −3.27, 0.45 −1.09 −3.64, 1.45 −0.78 −4.54, 2.98
  Gestational diabetes −0.50 −5.22, 4.22 3.16 0.28, 6.04 1.83 0.06, 3.60 0.50 −1.50, 2.50 0.39 −1.24, 2.02 0.28 −1.91, 2.48 0.18 −3.07, 3.42
Child factorsa
 Female sex (vs. male) 1,370 −2.66 −4.67, −0.66 −0.85 −2.02, 0.32 −0.29 −1.01, 0.43 0.27 −0.56, 1.10 −1.72 −2.40, −1.04 −3.71 −4.65, −2.78 −5.70 −7.09, −4.32
 Race/ethnicity (vs. white) 1,370
  Black 0.71 −2.68, 4.11 0.61 −1.44, 2.66 0.54 −0.68, 1.77 0.47 −0.83, 1.78 −0.42 −1.50, 0.66 −1.32 −2.78, 0.14 −2.22 −4.36, −0.07
  Hispanic −0.17 −5.61, 5.27 −0.51 −3.73, 2.71 −0.37 −2.29, 1.55 −0.23 −2.35, 1.90 −0.81 −2.57, 0.95 −1.39 −3.77, 0.99 −1.97 −5.47, 1.53
  Asian −3.79 −8.96, 1.37 0.40 −2.91, 3.71 −0.49 −2.52, 1.55 −1.38 −3.70, 0.95 0.76 −1.17, 2.69 2.90 0.15, 5.64 5.03 0.93, 9.14
  Other 1.14 −2.19, 4.47 −0.51 −2.47, 1.44 0.35 −0.85, 1.55 1.21 −0.15, 2.57 0.77 −0.34, 1.88 0.33 −1.17, 1.83 −0.11 −2.33, 2.10
Infant perinatal factorsc
 BW-for-GA (per 1-SD increase) 825 0.34 −1.19, 1.88 −0.45 −1.30, 0.41 −0.65 −1.16, −0.13 −0.85 −1.45, −0.25 −0.51 −1.00, −0.02 −0.17 −0.82, 0.49 0.17 −0.79, 1.13
 Neonatal systolic BP (per 10-mm Hg increase) 825 0.71 −0.71, 2.13 1.26 0.42, 2.09 1.00 0.49, 1.51 0.75 0.17, 1.33 0.36 −0.12, 0.85 −0.02 −0.67, 0.63 −0.40 −1.35, 0.55
Postnatal factorsd
 Infant feeding type in first 6 months of life (vs. breast milk only) 662
  Mixed feeding −2.18 −5.68, 1.33 1.32 −0.73, 3.37 0.84 −0.44, 2.11 0.35 −1.21, 1.91 0.51 −0.77, 1.80 0.67 −0.99, 2.34 0.83 −1.58, 3.25
  Weaned −1.96 −5.47, 1.55 −0.63 −2.67, 1.41 −0.31 −1.57, 0.94 0.01 −1.48, 1.49 0.39 −0.84, 1.62 0.78 −0.80, 2.37 1.17 −1.11, 3.45
  Formula only −2.51 −7.42, 2.41 1.66 −1.12, 4.43 1.17 −0.52, 2.85 0.68 −1.30, 2.65 2.10 0.46, 3.74 3.52 1.40, 5.64 4.94 1.88, 7.99
 Infancy zBMI gain (per 1-SD increase) 662 1.33 0.12, 2.54 0.95 0.24, 1.67 0.67 0.23, 1.11 0.39 −0.16, 0.95 0.21 −0.24, 0.66 0.03 −0.57, 0.63 −0.15 −1.03, 0.73

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; BP, blood pressure; BW-for-GA, birth weight for gestational age; CI, confidence interval; SD, standard deviation; zBMI, age- and sex-specific BMI z score.

a Adjusted for type of study visit, maternal and paternal educational level, maternal height, parity, and child height z score.

b Weight (kg)/height (m)2.

c Adjusted for type of study visit, maternal and paternal educational level, maternal height, parity, all prenatal factors, child factors, and height z score.

d Adjusted for type of study visit, maternal and paternal educational level, maternal height, parity, all prenatal and perinatal factors, child factors, and height z score.