Table 1.
Biological functions of C3G-Ms.
| C3G-Ms | Biological Functions | Objects | Results |
|---|---|---|---|
| PCA | Antioxidant | Rats, mice, macrophages | Treatment with PCA increased T-AOC [31], catalase [33], SOD [33] and GPx [33,34,35,36] levels, but decreased ROS [35], MDA [31] and hydroperoxides [31] levels. |
| Anti-inflammatory | Mice, macrophages | PCA decreased IL-6 [33,37,39], TNF-α [33,39], IL-1β [33,39] and PGE2 production [39], and inhibited ERK, NF-κB p65 activation [33]. | |
| PGA | Anti-inflammatory | Mice, Human | PGA decreased serum levels of MCP-1 and TNF-α in high fat diet-induced mice [41]; PGA inhibited the production of IL-1β and IL-6 in human whole blood cultures after LPS stimulation, but no significant difference (p > 0.01) [40]. |
| VA | Antioxidant | Hamsters, mice, rats | VA increased SOD [43,44], catalase [43,44], GPx [43,44], vitamin E [43,44], vitamin C [43,44] and GSH [43,44,45] levels. |
| Anti-inflammatory | Rats, mice, macrophages | VA inhibited caspase-1, NF-κB and MAPKs activation [45,46,47], decreased production of COX-2, PGE2 and NO [46], and reduced the levels of TNF-α [45,46], IL-6 [46,55], IL-1β [45] and IL-33 [45]. | |
| FA | Antioxidant | Rats, mice, IEC-6 cells | FA decreased the production of ROS [45,46,47], MDA [49], NO [49], enhanced SOD [48,49] and CAT [48,51] activity, and promoted the activation of Nrf2 [51]. |
| Anti-inflammatory | HUVEC cells, mice, rats | FA decreased the expression of caspase-1 [52], ICAM-1 [52], VCAM-1 [52], IL-18 [52], IL-1β [50,52,53,54], IL-6 [50,54], TNF-α [53], and inhibited the phosphorylation of p38 and IκB [52]. |
Notes: C3G-Ms, cyanidin-3-glucoside metabolites; CAT, catalase; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; FA, ferulic acid; GSH, glutathione; ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; MAPKs, mitogen-activated protein kinases; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; MDA, malondialdehyde; NF-κB, nuclear factor-κB; NO, nitric oxide; PCA, protocatechuic acid; PGA, phloroglucinaldehyde; PGE2, prostaglandin E2; ROS, reactive oxygen species; T-AOC, total antioxidant capacity; VA, vanillic acid; VCAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1; SOD, superoxide dismutase; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α.