Table 1.

Literature review—pathophysiology of contrast-induced acute kidney injury.

S. No.	Author, journal	Year	Design	Conclusion
1	Sendeski Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol	2011	Review	• Oxidative stress causes direct cell-membrane damage • Increased osmolarity of CM exacerbates cell damage
2	Seeliger Eur Heart J	2012	Review	• CM becomes concentrated in the tubules • Concentrated CM leads to reduced urine flow rate • Reduced urine flow rate increases timed exposure to CM • Hydration flushes tubules and prevents CI-AKI
3	Solomon and Dauerman Circulation	2010	Review	• Risk factors include diabetes mellitus, CHF, acute hypotension, STEMI, and volume depletion • Association between CI-AKI with poor short- and long-term outcomes
4	Au et al Ann Pharmacotherapy	2014	Review	• Insufficient clinical studies evaluating strategies for the prevention of CI-AKI • Best data support preprocedural hydration with normal saline solution

Abbreviations: CHF, congestive heart failure; CI-AKI, contrast-induced acute kidney injury; CM, contrast media; STEMI, ST-elevation myocardial infarction.