Table 2.

Composite scaffolds for bone tissue application.

Biomaterial composition	Fabrication	Cell type	Outcome	Ref.
Gelatine, alginate, HAp scaffolds	Extrusion	hMSCs	Cell survived the printing process and showed 85% viability after 3 days	[134]
Chitin-nanoHAp scaffolds	Freezing/thawing method	COS-7 (fibroblast-like) cell line	Good adhesion and proliferation of cells	[135]
Gelatin-carboxymethyl chitosan-nanoHAp scaffolds	High stirring-induced foaming and freeze-drying	Human Wharton's jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cell microtissues	Cell growth, proliferation and differentiation; high mineralization capacity	[136]
Glycol chitosan-hyaluronic acid-nanoHAp scaffolds	Injectable	MC-3T3-E1	Cytocompatibility with cells well attached to the pores	[137]
Chitosan, gelatin, and GO containing scaffolds	Freeze-drying	Rat calvarial osteoprogenitor cells and mouse mesenchymal stem cells (C3H10T1/2)	Promote differentiation into osteoblasts; increased collagen deposition in vivo	[138]
Chitosan-nanoHAp containing Cu/Zn alloy nanoparticle scaffolds	Freeze-drying	Rat osteoprogenitor cells	Increase protein adsorption and antibacterial activity; no toxicity towards osteoprogenitor cells	[139]
Blended PLGA-silk fibroin fibrous scaffold coated with HAp	Electrospinning	MSCs	Increased adhesion, proliferation and differentiation towards osteoblasts; excellent cytocompatibility and good osteogenic activity	[140]
Micro-nano PLGA-collagen – nanoHAp rods scaffolds	Electrospinning	MC3T3-E1	Improved osteogenic properties; bioactivity	[141]
Alginate-PVA-HAp hydrogel scaffold	Bioprinting	MC3T3	Excellent osteoconductivity; well distributed and encapsulated cells	[142]
Tri-layer scaffold consisting of superficial PVA/PVAc-simvastatin (a type of statin)-loaded layer, followed by PLC-cellulose acetate-β-TCP layer and final PCL layer	Electrospinning	MC3T3-E1	Higher mineralization; enhanced cell attachment and proliferation	[143]
Laminated nanoHAp layer on PHB (polyhydroxybutyrate) fibrous scaffold	Electrospinning	MSCs	Better adherence, proliferation and osteogenic phenotype formation	[144]
PMMA-nHAp decorated cubic scaffold	Solvent casting and particle leaching	MG-63	Friendly environment for cell growth and protection from microbial infection	[145]
PLGA/TiO2 nanotube sintered microsphere scaffolds	Emulsion and solvent evaporation method and sintering	G-292 cell lines	Increased cell viability; a higher amount of bone formation	[146]
PU fibrous scaffolds loaded with MWCNTs (0.4 wt%) and ZnO nanoparticles (0.2 wt%)	Electrospinning	MC3T3-E1	Scaffolds promote osteogenic differentiation	[147]
PCL-nanoHAp nanofibre layer deposited on Mg alloy scaffold	Electrospinning	Osteocytes	Retard corrosion and increased osteocompatibility; higher cell attachment and proliferation	[148]
Porous rGO-nanoHAp scaffold	Self-assembly	rBMSCs (rat bone mesenchymal stem cells)	Enhanced proliferation and osteogenic gene expression	[149]
PLLA - osteogenic dECM (from MC3T3-E1) scaffolds	Electrospinning	mBMSCs (mouse bone marrow stem cells)	Faster proliferation; early stage osteogenic differentiation	[150]