Table 4.

Overview of 3D printed bioceramics for bone tissue engineering.

Material	Process	In Vivo/In Vitro Model	Key Findings	Ref.
HA + liquid sodium polyacrylate + photopolymer	A ball crusher was used to milled all the materials for 12 h to make a slurry with solid content of 10~60 wt%. The ceramic scaffold was fabricated by using digital light processing (DLP) technique	Mouse osteoblast precursor cells (MC3T3.E1) were cultured in the condition of $\alpha$-MEM (10% fetal bovine serum 4% penicillin-streptomycin)	3D printed scaffold showed better biocompatibility, adhesion, differentiation and also able to promote osteoblast proliferation	[105]
Biphasic calcium phosphate (HA/$\beta$-TCP = 60:40) + HMPC+ polyethylenimine + Zr${\mathrm{O}}_2$	Extruded at pressure of 600 kPa with printing speed of 100 mm/min. Constructs were sintered at 1100 °C	Investigated on osteoblast like sarcoma cells for cytotoxicity and for differentiation potential of the scaffolds hMSCs cells were used	Better mechanical properties of scaffolds at 10% (w/w) of Zr${\mathrm{O}}_2$ was observed with improved BMP-2 expression.	[106]
$\beta -$TCP/polycaprolactone	$\beta$-TCP powder with 550 nm particle size were used to fabricate 350 µm pore size cylindrical scaffolds.	Composite scaffolds were tested using human fetal osteoblast cells (hFOB) for 3, 7 and 11 days of incubation period	Enhanced early bone formation and effective for controlled alendronate release	[107]
$\beta -$TCP/sphingosine 1-phosphate (SIP)	The scaffolds were printed in four layers and in different sizes to fit in 6-well and 12-well plates. Printed scaffolds were sintered at 1100 °C for 3 h.	Immunoregulation capability was investigated on macrophages and the osteogenic capability was tested on rat bone marrow stromal cells of the coated scaffolds.	Good biocompatibility, improved bone regeneration process	[90]
Bioactive glass/alginate	Composite scaffolds of type 13-93 bioactive glass (13-93 BG) and sodium alginate (SA) were prepared with mass ratio of 0:4, 1:4, 2:4 and 4:4 under mild conditions for bone regeneration.	The apatite mineralization abilities of the 13-93 BG/SA scaffolds were tested by soaking scaffolds in simulated body fluid (SBF), using 200 mL ${\mathrm{g}}^{-1}$ of scaffold mass, at 37 °C for 0 and 10 days.	Improved porosity and reduced shrinkage ratios	[108]
Bioglass (BG)/gelatin/cross linked-gelatin/ploy (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)	Three different types of 3D-polymer coated BG (45S5-type) scaffolds were fabricated by the well-established foam replica method and coated with the biopolymers.	Osteo-inductive properties of 3D-45S5 bioglass scaffolds were investigated by seeding human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC) implanted into immunodeficient mice for the period of 8 weeks.	Under standard conditions biopolymer coated 3D 45S5 BG scaffolds have ability to induce bone formation. Gelation coated scaffolds showed the best results.	[104]