| Cardiac |
Congestive cardiac failure (HFrEF, HFpEF) |
|
Ischaemic heart disease |
|
Arrhythmia |
|
Valvular and structural heart disease |
|
Pericardial effusion/constrictive pericarditis |
| Respiratory |
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |
|
Asthma |
|
Interstitial lung disease |
|
Bronchiectasis |
|
Pleural effusion |
|
Pulmonary malignancy |
|
Pulmonary hypertension |
| Haematological |
Anaemia |
| Neuromuscular |
Myopathies |
|
Motor neurone disease |
|
Myasthenia gravis |
|
Diaphragm paresis/paralysis |
|
Chest wall deformity |
| Gastrointestinal |
Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease |
|
Hiatus hernia |
|
Chronic aspiration |
| Metabolic |
Metabolic acidosis |
|
Renal failure |
|
Thyroid disease |
|
Liver cirrhosis |
| Psychological |
Anxiety disorders |
|
Somatoform disorders |
| Other |
Physical deconditioning |
|
Obesity |
|
Pregnancy |
|
Upper airway obstruction (compressive tumour, vocal cord dysfunction or paralysis) |
