Table 1.
Biobased monomers and chemical building blocks for the synthesis of biobased polymers.
| Monomer/Chemical Building Block | Biotechnical Process | Application | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adipic acid | Fermentation of glucose + hydrogenation of cis,cis-muconic acid or glucaric acid | Resins, polyesteramines, polyesterurethanes | [13,32,33,34] |
| 1,4-butanediol | Fermentation of sugars, hydrogenation of succinic acid | PBAT, PBS, PBT | [13,34,35] |
| Benzaldehyde | Steam distillation | Resins, flame retardants | [36,37] |
| Benzene, toluene, xylene (BTX) | Pyrolysis of lignocellulose residues | Building block for PET | [12,38] |
| Cardanol | Extraction from cashew nuts via hot oil or roasting process, distillation | Resins | [18,20,39] |
| Ethylene glycol | Ethanol dehydration, hydrogenolysis of xylitol, sorbitol or glycerol | PET, PEF | [13,38] |
| Eugenol | Extraction from Dianthus | Resins | [40,41,42] |
| 2,5-Furandicarboxylic acid | Fermentation, dehydration of fructose/glucose, oxidation | PEF, PBF, polyesterurethanes | [13,43] |
| Isobutanol | Yeast fermentation of sugars | PET (production of terephthalic) | [12,13] |
| Isosorbide | Sorbitol dehydration | Thermosetting resins | [13,44] |
| Itaconic acid | Fermentation of carbohydrates | Photocurable precursors, plasticizers, resins, flame retardants | [13,45,46] |
| Lactic acid | Fermentation | PLA | [13,47,48] |
| Levullinic acid | Acid hydrolysis of lignocellulose | PBS | [13,49,50] |
| Lignin | Plant biomass | Resins, PET, Flame retardant agents | [51,52,53,54,55] |
| Malic acid | fermentation | Functionalized chiral polyesters | [13,56] |
| Myrcene | Extraction from essential oils, pyrolysis of β-pinene | Resins, Polyesters, Polymyrcene | [57,58,59] |
| p-Benzoquinone | Microbial catalysis of glucose, oxidation | Resins | [60,61] |
| Phloroglucinol | Extraction of seaweeds | Resins | [62,63] |
| Phytic acid | Extraction from beans | Flame retardant | [64,65,66] |
| 1,3-Propanediol | Fermentation | PTT, fibers, elastomers, polyesterurethanes | [12,13,67] |
| Sebacic acid | Caustic fusion from castor oil | Polyesters, Resins | [68,69] |
| Sorbitol | Fermentation and hydrogenation | Functional polyesters, coatings | [13,70,71] |
| Succinic acid | Fermentation of sugars | Textiles, coatings, PBS, PBT | [13,49,72] |
| Tartaric acid | Precipitation in wine production | Polyester, flame retardant | [73,74] |
| Terephthalic acid | Isobutylene oxidation, fermentation | PET, coatings | [12,13,75,76] |
| Vanillin | Oxidation of lignin | Resins, polyvanillin | [77,78] |
(PBAT (poly(butylene adipate terrephthalate), PBS (poly(butylene succinate), PBT (poly(butylene terephthalate), PET (poly(ethylene terephthalate), PEF (poly(ethylene furanoate)), PBF (poly(butylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate), PLA (poly(lactic acid), PTT (poly(trimethylene terephthalate)) and flame retardants.