Figure 7.

Proposed mechanisms of carvedilol on cholesterol efflux, exosome functions, and atherosclerosis. Cav enhanced cellular and exosomal ABCA1 expression and promoted cholesterol efflux in THP-1 macrophages, which contributes to the atheroprotective effects in mice model. Inhibition of NF-κB activation by enhancing IκB expression increases ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux. Inhibition of Akt increases cholesterol efflux to ApoA-1. These beneficial roles of Cav are possible through its suppression of NF-κB and Akt signaling. (Arrows, enhancement; T bars, inhibitory effect; dotted arrow, proposed enhancement effect).