Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of participants
| Characteristic |
Overall cohort n = 427 |
Adolescents 10-19 years old n = 52 |
Adults ≥20 years old n = 375 |
p-value | Abnormal spirometry n = 85 |
Normal spirometry n = 342 |
p-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years), median (IQR) | 39 (32 – 45) | 13 (11 – 14) | 40 (35 – 46) | -- | 37 (20 – 42) | 40 (33 – 46) | <0.001 |
| Adolescents (10-19 years old), n (%) | 52 (12) | -- | -- | -- | 21 (25) | 31 (9) | <0.001 |
| Male, n (%) | 151 (35) | 28 (54) | 123 (33) | 0.003 | 28 (33) | 123 (36) | 0.6 |
| Current/former smoker, n (%) | 47 (11) | 0 | 47 (13) | -- | 10 (11) | 37 (11) | 0.8 |
| Smoking pack-years among current/former smokers, median (IQR) | 5 (2 – 11) | 0 | 5 (2 – 11) | -- | 10 (5 – 20) | 5 (2 – 8) | 0.06 |
| Energy source for indoor heating/cooking*, n (%) | |||||||
| Any combustible fuel | 362 (85) | 46 (88) | 316 (84) | 0.5 | 75 (88) | 287 (84) | 0.3 |
| Kerosene | 210 (49) | 22 (42) | 188 (50) | 0.3 | 50 (59) | 160 (47) | 0.047 |
| Wood | 53 (12) | 10 (19) | 43 (11) | 0.1 | 11 (13) | 42 (12) | 0.9 |
| Charcoal | 263 (62) | 34 (65) | 229 (61) | 0.5 | 50 (59) | 213 (62) | 0.6 |
| Self-reported prior pulmonary infections, n (%) | |||||||
| Pneumonia (presumed bacterial) | 109 (25) | 18 (35) | 91 (24) | 0.1 | 25 (29) | 84 (25) | 0.4 |
| Tuberculosis | 96 (22) | 14 (27) | 82 (22) | 0.4 | 35 (41) | 61 (18) | <0.001 |
| Self-reported history of obstructive lung disease (asthma or COPD), n (%) | 29 (7) | 2 (4) | 27 (7) | 0.6 | 11 (13) | 18 (5) | 0.01 |
| Low BMI†, n (%) | 32 (7) | 12 (23) | 20 (5) | <0.001 | 15 (18) | 17 (5) | <0.001 |
| Stunted growth (height-for-age Z-score <−2)‡, n (%) | -- | 13 (25) | -- | -- | 6/21 (29) | 7/31 (23) | 0.7 |
| Respiratory abnormalities, n (%) | |||||||
| Any chronic respiratory symptom | 232 (54) | 41 (79) | 191 (51) | <0.001 | 58 (68) | 174 (51) | 0.004 |
| Cough | 144 (34) | 32 (62) | 112 (30) | <0.001 | 46 (54) | 98 (29) | <0.001 |
| Sputum production | 107 (25) | 28 (54) | 79 (21) | <0.001 | 28 (33) | 79 (23) | 0.06 |
| Wheezing | 89 (21) | 16 (31) | 73 (19) | 0.05 | 28 (33) | 61 (18) | 0.002 |
| Chest tightness | 63 (15) | 12 (23) | 51 (14) | 0.07 | 19 (22) | 44 (13) | 0.03 |
| mMRC Dyspnea Scale Score§ ≥1 | 90 (21) | 15 (29) | 75 (20) | 0.1 | 28 (33) | 62 (18) | 0.003 |
| SpO2 ≤92%, resting | 14 (3) | 5 (10) | 9 (2) | 0.02 | 3 (4) | 11 (3) | 1.0 |
| SpO2 ≤92%, after sub-maximal exercise | 82 (19) | 20 (38) | 62 (17) | <0.001 | 21 (25) | 61 (18) | 0.2 |
| HIV-related variables | |||||||
| CD4 cell counts ‖ | |||||||
| Nadir CD4 <200 cells/µL, n (%) | 213 (51) | 13 (25) | 200 (55) | <0.001 | 38 (47) | 175 (52) | 0.4 |
| Nadir CD4 (cells/µL), median (IQR) | 194 (82 – 310) | 294 (200 – 494) | 180 (74 – 296) | <0.001 | 210 (87 – 366) | 191 (76 – 303) | 0.2 |
| Recent CD4 <200 cells/µL, n (%) | 46 (11) | 3 (7) | 43 (12) | 0.5 | 11 (14) | 35 (11) | 0.3 |
| Recent CD4 (cells/µL), median (IQR) | 454 (304 – 677) | 678 (430 – 952) | 439 (297 – 633) | <0.001 | 506 (331 – 713) | 448 (298 – 667) | 0.3 |
| WHO HIV Clinical Stage**, n (%) | |||||||
| 1/2 | 261 (63) | 34 (65) | 227 (63) | 0.7 | 41 (51) | 220 (66) | 0.01 |
| 3/4 | 154 (37) | 18 (35) | 136 (37) | 40 (49) | 114 (34) | ||
| Current co-trimoxazole use, n (%) | 398 (93) | 50 (96) | 348 (93) | 0.2 | 82 (96) | 316 (93) | 0.3 |
| Current ART use, n (%) | 367 (86) | 48 (94) | 319 (85) | 0.09 | 74 (87) | 293 (86) | 0.9 |
| ART duration (years)††, median (IQR) | 4 (2 – 8) | 5 (3 – 8) | 4 (2 – 7) | 0.02 | 5 (3 – 8) | 4 (2 – 7) | 0.1 |
| Known duration of HIV infection (years)††, median (IQR) | 7 (3 – 10) | 13 (11 – 14) | 6 (3 – 9) | <0.001 | 8 (4 – 13) | 6 (3 – 10) | 0.006 |
*
Participants could have reported use of >1 energy source
†
Adolescents = BMI-for-age Z-score <-2 (wasted); adults = BMI <18.5 kg/m2 (underweight)
‡
Stunted growth presented for adolescents only
§
Modified Medical Research Council (mMRC) Dyspnea Scale Score ≥1 corresponds to dyspnea when hurrying on level ground or with lesser exertion
‖
CD4 cell counts missing for n=11 overall
**
WHO HIV Clinical Stage missing for n=12 overall
††
ART duration and known duration of HIV missing for n=4 overall