Table 6.

Summary of the clinical evidence of PPAR agonists in kidney diseases.

Disease	Target	Drug Name	Clinical Phase (Sample Size)	Main Findings/Primary Endpoint	Reference/Clinical Trial Identifier
CKD	PPARγ	Pioglitazone	IV (16)	▪ Decreased the visceral/sub-cutaneous adipose tissue ratio, leptin/adiponectin (L/A) ratio. Increased insulin sensitivity.	[220]
			NA-completed (95)	▪ Primary endpoint: Change in adiponectin and CRP	NCT01301027
			NA (75)	▪ Halved pioglitazone dosage produces similar glycemic effects with reduced adverse effects	[219]
			NA-terminated (36)	▪ Primary endpoint: Change in brachial arterial reactivity	NCT00586261
			IV-ongoing (28)	▪ Primary endpoint: Change in muscle sympathetic nerve activity	NCT03471117
		Rosiglitazone	NA (70)	▪ Improvement to insulin sensitivity, hs-CRP, and von Willebrand Factor (vWF).	[221]
Renal transplant complication	PPARγ	Pioglitazone	NA (48)	▪ Reduced fasting plasma glucose and HbA1c	[223]
			NA (83)	▪ Increase in insulin sensitivity and reduced progression of carotid IMT	[224]
Kidney stone	PPARγ	Pioglitazone	NA (36)	▪ Improvement to features of metabolic syndrome, reduced net acid excretion and increased urine pH	[225]
resistant focal segmental glomerulosclerosis	PPARγ	Pioglitazone	I-completed (21)	▪ Primary endpoint: Safety and tolerance	NCT00193648
Polycystic kidney disease	PPARγ	Pioglitazone	II-ongoing (18)	▪ Primary endpoint: Safety and tolerance	NCT02697617