Table 9.

Summary of the clinical evidence of PPAR agonists in autoimmune diseases.

Disease	Target	Drug Name	Clinical Phase (Sample Size)	Main Findings/Primary Endpoint	Reference/Clinical Trial Identifier
Rheumatoid arthritis	PPARγ	Pioglitazone	NA (34)	▪ Reduced CRP and insulin resistance ▪ No effect on swollen or tender joint count and erythrocyte sedimentation rate	[260]
			III (143)	▪ Reduced pulse wave velocity, but not brachial artery flow mediated dilatation and microvascular endothelial function ▪ Reduced disease activity and CRP ▪ Improved lipid profiles	[261]
			NA (49)	▪ Reduced disease activity and CRP	[262]
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus	PPARγ	Pioglitazone	IV (30)	▪ Increased HDL-cholesterol ▪ Reduced insulin, HOMA-IR, CRP, and amyloid A	[264]
			I/II-ongoing (88)	▪ Primary endpoint: vascular function and inflammation	NCT02338999
Autoimmune pulmonary alveolar proteinosis	PPARγ	Pioglitazone	I-ongoing (3)	▪ Primary endpoint: occurrence of adverse events	NCT03231033
Diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis	Pan-PPAR	Lanifibranor	III-completed (145)	▪ Primary endpoint: measurement of skin thickness by the Modified Rodnan Skin Score	NCT02503644