Table 1.
Brief summary of the formulation and characteristics of emulsions stabilized by regenerated cellulose.
| Cellulose Source/Concentration | Co-stabilizer/Concentration | Solvent | Oil Type/Concentration | Homogenization Method | Emulsion Characteristics | Ref. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Type | Droplet Size | Rheological Properties | Stability | ||||||
| MCC powder (no specification) |
-- | EMIMAC | n-Eicosane 5% w/w |
Sonication | Oil-in-water Water-in-oil |
200 nm–20 µm | -- | - No reversible flocculation or irreversible coalescence is observed within 1 year for o/w emulsions. - w/o emulsions are less stable, and phase separation is observed after several months. |
[69] |
| MCC powder 0.7%–4% w/w * |
-- | EMIMAC | Paraffin | High-shear (Ultra turrax) followed by Sonication |
Oil-in-water | 20 µm (a) | -- | -- | [101] |
| MCC powder 0%–1.06% w/v ** |
-- | 85% w/w Phosphoric acid aq. solution | Dodecane 10% v/v |
High-shear (Ultra turrax) |
Oil-in-water | 20 µm (concs > 0.11%) |
-- | - No coalescence (concs. > 0.11%). - No creaming (concs. > 0.84%). |
[88] |
| MCC powder 0.07%–1.10% w/v ** |
-- | 85% w/w Phosphoric acid aq. solution | Dodecane 25% v/v |
High-shear (Ultra turrax) |
Oil-in-water | 20–40 µm | Gel-like; Viscosity increase during storage |
- No coalescence. - No creaming within 3 months (concs. > 0.83%). |
[90] |
| MCC powder 3–8 g/kg ** (0.3%–0.8% w/w) |
-- | 85% w/w Phosphoric acid aq. solution | Citrus oil 5 to 20mL/L (0.5%–2.0% v/v) |
1. Sonication 2. High-shear (Ultra turrax) |
Oil-in-water | 1–3 µm 4–9 µm |
Gel-like | - No coalescence. - No creaming within 1 month. |
[96] |
| MCC powder 0%–2.0% w/w ** |
Sodium caseinate 2.0% w/w * |
85% w/w Phosphoric acid aq. solution | Soybean oil 30% w/w |
High-shear (Ultra turrax) | Oil-in-water | 14–32 µm | Gel-like; viscosity increase during storage |
- No creaming within 7 days (concs. > 1.0%). - Depletion flocculation prevented for cellulose concentrations above 1.5%. |
[97] |
| Sulfite dissolving pulp 0.1% w/w *** |
-- | 85% w/w Phosphoric acid aq. solution | Paraffin | Sonication | Oil-in-water | 2–5 µm | -- | - No coalescence. - Reversible flocculation and creaming within 1 day. |
[91] |
* Concentration of the regenerated particles in the initial cellulose/IL solutions. ** Concentration of the regenerated particles in the total emulsion. *** Concentration of dissolved cellulose in the initial solution. (a) At the optimal conditions: 0.7%–4% w/w at 70 °C and oil/cellulose mass ratios between 1:1 and 1.5:1.