Table 2.
Barrier impairment findings in celiac disease.
| Type of Change | Observations | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Functional | Increased cellobiose/mannitol excretion ratio | [75] |
| Functional | Increased Lactulose/L-rhamnose excretion ratio | [76] |
| Functional | 5-fold increase in Lactulose/mannitol excretion ratio | [77] |
| Functional | 13-fold increase in cellobiose/mannitol ratios in active CeD. 2-fold increase in treated patients and 5-fold increase in non-responders | [68] |
| Cellobiose/mannitol excretion ratio reached normal levels after treatment and increased transiently after a gluten challenge | ||
| Functional | 56% reduction in electrical epithelial resistance in active CeD and 25% reduction in treated CeD | [79] |
| Structural | Decreased number of tight junction strands and depth of TJ meshwork in active CeD. Partial recovery in treated CeD | [78] |
| Discontinued strands and aberrant strands below the main junctional meshwork | ||
| Molecular | Loss of co-immunoprecipitation of occludin and ZO-1 despite no changes in total protein levels. Decrease in the membrane localization of ZO-1 and occludin | [84] |
| Loss of co-immunoprecipitation of E-cadherin and β-Catenin despite normal levels of in total protein. Extensive phosphorylation of β-Catenin. Redistribution of both AJ proteins from the membrane to the cytoplasm | ||
| Functional | 26% reduction in paracellular resistance in CeD patients with partial and subtotal atrophy. 16% reduction in treated CeD | [80] |
| Functional | Electrical resistance decrease after exposure to PT-gliadin in samples from CeD patients | [71] |
| Molecular | Zonulin release and decrease in occludin gene expression after PT-gliadin exposure | |
| Molecular | Increased claudin-2 and -3 in patient samples with villous atrophy | [85] |
| Molecular | Increased claudin-2, -15 and decreased claudin-3, -5, -7 and occludin. No changes in claudin-2 RNA. Intense claudin-2 staining in the TJ of the crypts. Reduced membrane localization of claudin-3 and ZO-1. Partial membrane localization of claudin 5 and 15 and inhomogeneous claudin-7 staining | [81] |
| Functional | 48% reduction of electrical resistance in CeD | |
| Molecular | Increased Claudin-2 in the crypts and decreased Claudin-4 and -5 in Refractory patients | [83] |
| Functional | 40% decrease in epithelial resistance in refractory patients | |
| Functional | Only partial recovery of epithelial resistance in treated CeD | [82] |
CeD, celiac disease, TJ, tight junction, AJ, adherent junction.