Table 3.

The anti-inflammatory activity of Sargassum purified compounds and their mechanisms in modulating inflammation (lipid-soluble compounds).

Compound	Source	Modulation of Inflammation	Ref
Terpenoid group
Fucosterol	S. binderi	Suppression of COX-2, PGE2, TNF-α, and IL-6 production via the inhibition of NF-kB activation and MAPK group phosphorylation	[26]*
Sargachromenol	S. serratifolium	Suppression of adhesion molecules (VCAM-1, and ICAM-1) and chemotactic cytokine (MCP-1) production via inhibition of IKK-β - Ikβ phosphorylation, and NF-kB nuclear translocation in TNF-α-induced HUVECs	[123]
	S. micracanthum	Suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), PGE2, NO, COX-2, and iNOS production via inhibition of Ikβ degradation in LPS-induced RAW 264.7	[126]
	S. horneri	Suppression of MMP-1, -2, and -9 via inhibition of AP-1 activation (c-Jun and c-Fos) in UVA-induced human derman fibroblast	[120]
	S. macrocarpum	Inhibition of JNK and ERK phosphorylation and increased ROS scavenging activity in UVB-induced HaCaT keratinocytes	[121]
Sargaquinoic acid	S. serratifolium	Suppression of adhesion molecules (VCAM-1, and ICAM-1) and chemotactic cytokine (MCP-1, and IL-8) production via inhibition of Ikβ degradation in TNF-α-induced HUVECs	[124]
	S. siliquastrum	Suppression of iNOS and NO production via inhibition of Ikβ degradation, NF-kB nuclear translocation, and JNK1/2 phosphorylation in LPS-induced RAW 264.7	[129]
Sargahydroquinoic acid	S. yezoense	Suppression of MMP-2/-9 expression via inhibition of NF-kB nuclear translocation, Ikβ degradation, and AP-1 activation in TNF-α stimulated HaCaT cells	[119]
Sargachromanol D	S. siliquastrum	Suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), PGE2, NO, COX-2, and iNOS production via inhibition of p65 and Ikβ-α phosphorylation in LPS-induced RAW 264.7	[127]
Sargachromanol E	S. siliquastrum	Suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), PGE2, NO, COX-2, and iNOS production via inhibition of MAPKs group phosphorylation (JNK, ERK, and p38) LPS-induced RAW 264.7	[118]
Sargachromanol G	S. siliquastrum	Suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), PGE2, NO, COX-2, and iNOS production via inhibition of IkB-α, NF-κB (p65 and p50), and MAPK (ERK1/2, JNK, and p38) phosphorylation in LPS-induced RAW 264.7	[116]
		Suppression of osteoclastogenic factor (PGE2, COX-2, IL-6, OPG, and RANKL) via inhibition of IkB-α, NF-κB (p65 and p50), and MAPKs (ERK1/2, JNK, and p38) phosphorylation in IL-1β-induced MG-63 osteoblast cells	[147]
Isoketochabrolic acid (IKCA)	S. micracanthum	Suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β), PGE2, NO, COX-2, and iNOS production in LPS-induced RAW 264.7	[125]
Tuberatolide B	S. macrocarpum	Suppression of NO, PGE2, IL-6, IL-1β, iNOS, and COX-2 production via inhibition of NF-κB (p65) and MAPK (ERK1/2, JNK, and p38) phosphorylation, and IkB degradation LPS-induced RAW 264.7	[122]
Isonahocol E3	S. siliquastrum	Suppression of IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α production, and MMP gene expression via inhibition of ERK phosphorylation in ET-1-induced human keratinocytes	[128]
Loliolide	S. horneri	Suppression of NO production in LPS-induced RAW 264.7	[19]
Carotenoid group
Fucoxanthin	S. siliquastrum	Suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), PGE2, NO, COX-2, and iNOS production in LPS-induced RAW 264.7	[117]
Apo-9′-fucoxanthinone	S. muticum	Suppression of NO 1,2, PGE2, proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β), iNOS, and COX-2 production via inhibition of NF-κB (p65) and MAPK (ERK1/2, JNK, and p38) phosphorylation, and IkB degradation in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 1	[130]1; [27]2
		Suppression of NO and PGE2 production via inhibition of Ikβ degradation in LPS-induced RAW 264.7	[133]
		Suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-12 p40, TNF-α, and IL-6) and iNOS production via inhibition of ERK phosphorylation and AP-1 translocation in CpG DNA-induced BMDMs (bone marrow-derived macrophages) and BMDC (bone marrow-derived dendritic cells)	[132]
		Suppression of IgE, IL-4, interferon- gamma, and TNF-α production, and lymph node size in atopic dermatitis rats	[131]
Other group
Aryl polyketide lactone	S. wightii	Direct inhibition of 5-LOX, COX-2, and COX-1 enzymes (in vitro)	[144] *
Grasshopper ketone	S. fulvellum	Suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), NO, COX-2, and iNOS production via inhibition of p65 NF-κB nuclear translocation and MAPK (ERK1/2, JNK, and p38) phosphorylation in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 Suppression of IFN-γ and IL-4 production in concanavalin-A-induced BALB/c mice splenocytes	[145] [65]

Note: References followed by an asterisk (*) used samples from tropical area. The superscripted numbering as listed in reference and modulation of inflammation in the same row are related to one another. This superscripted numbering is discontinous between rows and only applied to the same row.