Table 4.

Anti-inflammatory activity of Sargassum purified compounds and their mechanism in modulating inflammation (water-soluble compounds).

Compound	Source	Modulation of Inflammation	Ref
Polysaccharides
Purified FCSPs (fucoidan)	S. wightii	Direct inhibition of 5-LOX, COX-2, and COX-1 enzymes (in vitro).	[136] *
	S. henslowianum	Increased secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-2, IL-4, and IL-10) and suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-α) production in MNNG-induced gastric cancer rats.	[134]
	S. hemiphyllum	A combination of oligofucoidan (LMF) and fucoxanthin resulted in enhancement of the intestinal epithelial barrier and immune function against LPS stimulation through suppression of IL-1β and TNF-α production and increased secretion of IL-10 and IFN-γ in CaCo2 cells co-cultured with B. lactis 1 A combination of oligofucoidan (LMF) and fucoxanthin resulted in enhancement of adiponectin production, and decreased production of TNF-α and IL-6 in type II diabetes mouse model 2	[137]1 [141]2
	S. horneri	Decreased NO production (IC50 = 40 μg/mL) via inhibition of the NF-κB and MAPK (ERK and p38) signaling pathways in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Decreased heart-beating rate, cell death, ROS, and NO levels in LPS-exposed zebrafish embryos.	[140]
Alginic acid	S. horneri	Suppression of PGE2, proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β), and COX-2 production via inhibition of NF-κB (p65) nuclear translocation and MAPK (ERK1/2, JNK, and p38) phosphorylation in CFD (Chinese fine dust)-induced HaCaT keratinocytes.	[135]
	S. wightii	Suppression of COX-2, 5-LOX, MPO, xanthine oxidase (XO), ceruloplasmin, rheumatoid factor, CRP, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and lysosomal enzymes in type-2 collagen-induced rat arthritis.	[139] *
		Suppression of COX-2, 5-LOX, MPO, XO, ceruloplasmin, rheumatoid factor, and CRP production, and enhancement of antioxidant enzymes activity in Freund’s complete adjuvant-induced rat arthritis.	[138] *
Phenolic compounds
Phlorotannin	S. muticum	Suppression of ROS production in PMA-induced neutrophil and suppression of PGE2, COX-1, and COX-2 expression in A23187-induced erythrocytes.	[142]
	S. vulgare	Suppression of NO production in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 and direct scavenging of NO in a cell-free system.	[143]

Note: References followed by an asterisk (*) used samples from tropical area. The superscripted numbering as listed in reference and modulation of inflammation in the same row are related to one another. This superscripted numbering is discontinous between rows and only applied to the same row.