Table 4.
Modeling distal, intermediate, and proximal drivers of trend in stunting prevalence 1.
| Indicators | Stunting | |
|---|---|---|
| Beta (95% CI) | p | |
| Distal determinants | ||
| Gini coefficient (SD) | 1.10 (0.29, 1.91) | 0.008 |
| Total fertility rate (SD) | 0.39 (−0.78, 1.56) | 0.513 |
| Urbanization (10%) | −0.67 (−1.21, −0.14) | 0.013 |
| Women primary education (10%) | −1.12 (−2.42, 0.18) | 0.092 |
| Male secondary education (10%) | −1.95 (−5.47, 1.56) | 0.275 |
| Women’s decision making (10%) | −0.36 (−0.69, −0.02) | 0.040 |
| Women’s working (10%) | −0.72 (−2.58, 1.15) | 0.450 |
| Intermediate service related determinants | ||
| Improved sanitation facilities (10%) | −1.40 (−2.17, −0.62) | <0.001 |
| Improved drinking water sources (10%) | −1.48 (−2.45, −0.52) | 0.003 |
| Antenatal care follow-up with ≥4 visits (10%) | 0.38 (−0.46, 1.23) | 0.377 |
| Delivery at health facility (10%) | 0.08 (−1.20, 1.36) | 0.907 |
| Iron supplementation during pregnancy (10%) | 0.21 (−0.14, 0.56) | 0.240 |
| Children with all 8 basic vaccinations (10%) | −1.74 (−2.53, −0.94) | <0.001 |
| Proximal determinants | ||
| Initiation of breastfeeding in ≤1 day (10%) | −1.17 (−1.62, −0.73) | <0.001 |
| Median duration of exclusive breastfeeding (SD) | 0.18 (−0.32, 0.68) | 0.473 |
| Complementary feeding b/n age 6–9 months (10%) | 0.75 (−0.53, 2.03) | 0.250 |
| Prevalence of reported low birthweight (10%) | 3.91 (2.40, 5.43) | <0.001 |
| Prevalence of acute respiratory illness (10%) | 1.28 (−1.40, 3.96) | 0.349 |
| Prevalence of diarrhea (10%) | −2.73 (−6.12, 0.65) | 0.113 |
1 Beta coefficients (95% CI) are estimated using a mixed-effects linear probability regression model with a robust variance estimator and using four-level random intercept accounting for clustering of individuals by sampling clusters, survey-rounds, and countries. Separate models were fitted for each group of the distal, intermediate, and proximal variables. Models were adjusted for time trend and important individual-level covariates including child age, sex, birth-order and birth-interval, maternal age and marital status, household wealth status, and place of residence (urban/rural). Bold values indicate p < 0.05. SD, standard deviation.