Table 2.

Summary of marine-derived biomaterials for 3D bioprinting.

Biomaterials	Marine Sources [56]	Category	Gelation Mechanism	Charge	Biodegardable	Cell Attachment	Cell Viability (%) [59]	Limitation	3D Bioprinting Methods	Ref.
Alginate	Brown algae	Natural	Ionic	anionic	Yes	Modified RGD	77-100	low biodegradability, lack cell binding domains	Inkjet printing, extrusion printing	[60,61]
Carrageenan	Red algae	Natural	Ionic and thermal	anionic	No	Yes	>80	Poor solubility, low biodegradability	Extrusion printing, stereolithographic printing	[58]
Chitosan	Arthropods, arthropods, marine algae	Natural	pH-sensitive	cationic	Yes	Yes	~75	Low mechanical integrity, poor solubility	Extrusion printing	[62]
HA	Fish tissue	Natural	Photo-sensitive MeHA	cationic	Yes	Yes	64.4	Low stability, no direct gelation	Extrusion printing, stereolithographic printing	[63,64]
Collagen	Fish tissue, gellyfish, marine sponges	Natural	Thermal	-	Yes	Yes	46-99	Low viscosity and mechanical integrity	Extrusion printing	[65]
Gelatin	Derivative of collagen	Natural	Thermal and Photo-sensitive GelMA	cationic	Yes	Yes	70-99.7	Low viscosity and mechanical integrity	Extrusion printing, inkjet printing, stereolithographic printing	[66]