Table 5.

Microbiome and pathogen effects.

Fucoidan Source	Aim of Study	Type of Study	Effect	Reference
Laminaria japonica	Wheat peptides and fucoidan	In vivo (Rat)	Amelioration of gastric inflammation caused by ethanol	[32]
Laminaria japonica	Wheat peptides and fucoidan	Clinical	Reduced gastric mucosal damage in 70% subjects (p < 0.001). Altered microbiota composition post-intervention	[33]
Laminaria japonica	Microbiome in mice with DMBA-induced breast cancer	In vivo (Mice)	Increased bacteroidetes/firmicutes phylum ratio, increased tight junction proteins and lowered endotoxin	[68]
Fucus vesiculosus Cladosiphon sp.	Oral healthcare biofilms	In vitro	Candida albicans, Streptococcus mutans, and Porphyromonas gingivalis; significantly inhibited the adhesion of S. mutans to bovine teeth and porcelain; were suggested to bind to and neutralise endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide) in a LAL assay; and showed COX-1 and/or COX-2 inhibitory activity	[12]
Fucus vesiculosus Undaria pinnatifida Macrocystis pyrifera Hizikia fusiforme Kjellmaniella crassifolia Laminaria japonica Sargassum hornerii	Effects on bacterial plaque (oral cavity)	In vitro	Minimum inhibitory concentrations of 125 to 1000 μg/mL. Above 250 μg/mL completely suppressed biofilm formation and planktonic cell growths of Streptococcus mutans and S. sobrinus	[69]
Synthetic fucoidan activity	Influenza virus infection	In vitro viral MDCK plaque assay	Bound to influenza virus haemagglutinins (HAs) and inhibited haemagglutination activity.	[71]
Kjellmaniella crassifolia	Influenza virus infection	In vitro	Bound to and inhibited viral neuraminidase and interfered with the activation of EGFR, PKCα, NF-κB, and Akt; intranasal administration improved survival and decreased viral titres.	[72]
Fucus vesiculosus	Anti-norovirus	In vitro	Fucoidan prevented the binding of norovirus	[14]