Table 2.

Studies pertaining to oxytocin with parents and infants using prospective observational-longitudinal study design.

Authors Year/Country	Study design/Purpose	Subjects	Parent-Infant contact method/Theoretical construct	Outcome Measures/Time Points	Primary Results
Feldman, Weller, Zagoory-Sharon, & Levine, 2007 Israel	Prospective longitudinal design Compared OT levels in mothers during pregnancy and postpartum months, and examine whether OT levels are indicative of what maternal behaviors are expressed during postpartum.	Pregnant women: n = 62	15 min of mother-infant interaction. Theoretical construct of study not described.	Plasma M-OT; Maternal screening of anxiety and depression done through questionnaires before giving birth; Coded behaviors included: Maternal gaze, affect, touch, and vocalization. Follow-up: 1st trimester, 3rd trimester, & infant at 1 month of age	Individual OT levels showed stability over time. Certain maternal behaviors were found to be related to OT, the strongest correlation being a mother constantly checking on their infant, P < 0.01.
Gordon, Zagoory-Sharon, Leckman, & Feldman, 2010 Israel	Prospective longitudinal design Compared plasma M-OT & P-OT across first 6 months after birth and interrelatedness OT with cohabitating partners; examined M-OT & P-OT related to maternal/paternal behavioral characteristics.	Parents: n = 128 (66 mothers, 62 fathers) First born infants: n = 80 (37 males, 43 females)	Video of 10-min parents infant free-play interaction Theoretical construct of study not described.	Plasma M-OT and P-OT; Composite scores of parents-infant behaviors for gaze, affect, proximity position, and touch created categories. Follow-up: 1st postpartum weeks & 6 months	Provided normative data for OT in mothers & fathers. Peripheral OT in cohabitating parents are interrelated. Mothers & fathers show similar levels of OT across time, first 6 months P< 0.01. Mothers ↑ affectionate parenting touch behaviors P < 0.05. Fathers had more stimulatory parenting touch behaviors P < 0.05.
Gordon, Zagoory-Sharon, Leckman, & Feldman, 2010 Israel	Prospective longitudinal design Examined the relationship between M-OT and P-OT with patterns of touch and contact in the family unit during triadic interactions.	Parents: n = 74 (37 couples) First-born infants: n = 37 (22 female, 15 male)	Video of 10-min parent-infant free play triadic interaction Theoretical Construct: Family system's approach; focused on M-OT & P-OT in shaping parents' engagement in synchronous & coherent triadic interactions.	Plasma M-OT & P-OT; salivary cortisol; Composite score of behavioral triadic synchrony. Follow-up: 2 months & 6 months age	Plasma M-OT, P-OT and salivary cortisol levels are stable over time P < 0.001. Parents' triadic synchrony scores were correlated P < 0.001. Mothers with ↑OT & ↓ SC predict triadic synchrony. For fathers, only OT independently predicted triadic synchrony.
Feldman, Gordon, Influs, Gutbir, & Ebstein, 2013 Israel	Prospective longitudinal design Examined the possible cross-generational transfer of human attachment through hormonal systems, genetics, and observed interactions.	Parents: n = 160 (80 couples) Firstborn infants n = 80 Baseline: 1 month age; 6 months: (66 mothers, 62 fathers) 3 years: (50 mothers, 48 fathers, 50 friends of infant)	1 month: videotaped parent and infant freely interacting. 6 months: videotaped parent and infant freely interacting. 3 years: each parent-infant interaction for 7-min. Then, a 10-min interaction between child and best friend was videotaped during structured play. Theoretical construct of study not described.	Plasma & salivary M-OT & P-OT; Genotyping; At 1 month visit categories of parenting behavior. Early Parental Care composite score given. A cumulative OT risk’ score was computed. At 3 yrs Coding Interactive Behavior composite score for social interactions. Follow-up: 1 month, 6 month, & 3 years of age	Demonstrated individual stability in parental peripheral OT P < 0.001 and behavior with genetic variability over several years. Child OT correlated with M-OT P < 0.01. Early maternal care was associated with mother-child reciprocity at 3 years P < 0.05. Bio-behavioral experiences within parent-infant bond shapes child's affiliative biology and social behavior across multiple attachments. Children's social reciprocity with best friend was associated with mother- child reciprocity P < 0.01.
Gordon, Pratt, Bergunde, Zagoory-Sharon, & Feldman, 2017 Israel/USA	Prospective longitudinal design Examined the interaction of OT and testosterone implicated in parental care, and its effect on synchrony and gender-specific behaviors	Parents: n = 160 (80 couples) Firstborn Infants: n = 80 (37 female, 43 male)	5 min of play between infant and both parents. Theoretical Construct: Bio-behavioral Synchrony Model such that ↑ parental OT stimulates human specific parental repertoire of synchronous parent-infant interactions.	Plasma OT & testosterone; Parental behaviors coded for vocalizations, affect, touch, synchrony, and gaze. Follow-up: 1 month & 6 month of age	Parental OT levels were stable overtime. M-OT coupled with a ↑ testosterone was associated with ↑ affectionate touch, P < 0.01. An ↑ testosterone in fathers was negatively correlated with lower OT and affectionate touch, P < 0.05.

Note: OT= Oxytocin, SC = salivary cortisol, M-OT = maternal oxytocin, P-OT = paternal oxytocin.