Fig. 1.

Overview of main hypothalamic changes in Huntington’s disease. Altered immunoreactivity and gene expression levels of cell populations detected in specific hypothalamic nuclei. Changes that result in upregulation and downregulation are indicated by the arrows. The location of specific hypothalamic nuclei is indicated by the dashed arrows on the cross-sectional human hypothalamic section stained for Cresyl violet and Luxol fast blue. Hypothalamic changes are also detected in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid as well as from different imaging paradigms. These changes are thought to be a key contributor to the clinical features in Huntington’s disease. CART, cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript; CREB-1, cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein 1; D2R, dopamine D2 receptor; FOXO3, Forkhead box O3; HPA, hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal; LHA, lateral hypothalamic area; MCH, melanin-concentrating hormone; NTL, nucleus tuberalis lateralis; NKX2-1, NK2 homeobox 1; OX2R, Orexin 2 receptor; PVN, paraventricular nucleus; PDYN, prodynorphin, SIRT1, sirtuin 1; VIP, vasoactive intestinal peptide; VMH, ventromedial hypothalamus.