Table 1.

Proposed solutions to participation dilemmas

Solution	Explanation	Examples
A. Selective incentives	Tangible rewards for participants, or penalties for non-participants	Stipends for volunteers; free food, training or entertainment for group members; education on ’hook topics' that are unrelated to the primary purpose of a self-help group to attract participants.
B. Social incentives	Incentives generated by social interaction with other community members	Opportunities for building individual social capital, displays of approval of participation or disapproval of non-participation by community members.
C. Outsize stakes, intermediate goals, interdependency	Situations in which the incentive structure does not produce a participation dilemma	A wealthy patron willing to build a clean water supply for the whole village; a health and sanitation club satisfied with raising awareness rather than changing behaviours; a troupe of activist street theatre performers who depend on each other for success.
D. Intrinsic benefits	Psychological or moral rewards for participation or penalties for non-participation	The benefits of being able to express outrage, gain a sense of agency, feel part of a greater cause, feel less lonely, express one’s identity, show solidarity or perform one’s moral duty.
E. Critical mass	An initial group of highly motivated participants sets off a chain reaction that rapidly drives further participation up	A small, initial group of street protesters against police inaction on violence against women successfully convince authorities to take action on a case of domestic violence, thereby persuading other community members to join future protests.