Fig. 8.

Summary of behavioral and neural effects of maltreatment and corticosterone injection paired with a social context (awake or anesthetized mother) or a nonsocial context (tube). Maltreatment impacts both the hippocampus and amygdala. The effects of maltreatment on the hippocampus can be mimicked simply by repeatedly injecting pups with corticosterone, regardless of context, ranging from experience with a nurturing mother to placement with the nonsocial context of a tube. On the other hand, the effects of maltreatment on the amygdala required a social context that was independent of maternal behavior since stress hormone increased within the context of a maltreating mother, a nurturing mother, and an anesthetized mother all produced similar amygdala outcomes.