Table 3.
Multilevel Mixed-Effects Panel Regression Models on the Effect of Feedback on Antibiotic Therapy Decisions
| Length of Antibiotic Therapies (in Days) | Absolute Deviation from the Expert Recommendations (in Days) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | Model 6 | ||
| Fixed effects | |||||||
| Feedback (=1 if intervention) | 0.937** (0.423) | 0.875 (0.560) | 0.312 (0.294) | 0.250 (0.364) | |||
| Second stage (=1 if second stage) | −0.107 (0.073) | −0.063 (0.107) | −0.063 (0.107) | −0.122** (0.060) | −0.086 (0.088) | −0.086 (0.088) | |
| Third stage (=1 if third stage) | −0.450*** (0.108) | −0.112 (0.150) | −0.112 (0.150) | −0.297*** (0.082) | −0.085 (0.115) | −0.085 (0.115) | |
| Effect of announcement (Second stage × Feedback) | −0.082 (0.147) | −0.082 (0.147) | −0.068 (0.120) | −0.068 (0.120) | |||
| Effect of feedback (Third stage × Feedback) | −0.633*** (0.205) | −0.633*** (0.205) | −0.397** (0.158) | −0.397** (0.158) | |||
| Female (=1 if female) | 0.581 (0.439) | 0.073 (0.218) | |||||
| Experience (years in hospital) | −0.077** (0.032) | −0.050*** (0.016) | |||||
| Willingness to take risks | −0.213*** (0.081) | 0.001 (0.040) | |||||
| Extraversion | 0.062 (0.141) | 0.074 (0.070) | |||||
| Agreeableness | −0.084 (0.203) | −0.051 (0.101) | |||||
| Conscientiousness | −0.309 (0.209) | −0.278*** (0.104) | |||||
| Neuroticism | −0.093 (0.134) | −0.025 (0.066) | |||||
| Openness | 0.150 (0.139) | −0.002 (0.069) | |||||
| Further individual characteristics (economic preferences) | No | No | Yes | No | No | Yes | |
| Constant | 7.527*** (0.211) | 7.035*** (0.311) | 7.660*** (1.648) | 2.919*** (0.152) | 2.752*** (0.215) | 4.543*** (0.839) | |
| Random effects | |||||||
| Session level | |||||||
| Var(constant) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.017 (0.112) | 0.289 (0.283) | 0.010 (0.043) | 0.000 | 0.101*** (0.089) | |
| Subject level | |||||||
| Var(Stage 2) | 0.222*** (0.065) | 0.226*** (0.066) | 0.226*** (0.066) | 0.150*** (0.043) | 0.153*** (0.044) | 0.153*** (0.044) | |
| Var(Stage 3) | 0.686* (0.143) | 0.595** (0.128) | 0.595** (0.128) | 0.375*** (0.081) | 0.342*** (0.076) | 0.342*** (0.076) | |
| Var(Constant) | 2.567*** (0.556) | 2.364*** (0.521) | 1.583 (0.494) | 1.405* (0.265) | 1.396* (0.263) | 1.094 (0.242) | |
| Cov(Stage 2, Stage 3) | 0.241*** (0.078) | 0.232*** (0.075) | 0.232*** (0.075) | 0.147*** (0.048) | 0.143*** (0.047) | 0.143*** (0.047) | |
| Cov(Stage 2, Constant) | −0.299** (0.141) | −0.285** (0.137) | −0.245* (0.137) | −0.277*** (0.085) | −0.276*** (0.086) | −0.286*** (0.084) | |
| Cov(Stage 3, Constant) | −1.084*** (0.242) | −0.944*** (0.219) | −0.740*** (0.215) | −0.679*** (0.136) | −0.653*** (0.131) | −0.586*** (0.124) | |
| Case level | |||||||
| Var(Constant) | 24.108*** (0.785) | 24.108*** (0.669) | 24.108*** (0.669) | 4.732*** (0.145) | 4.732*** (0.145) | 4.732*** (0.145) | |
| Var(Residual) | 3.322*** (0.062) | 3.322*** (0.062) | 3.322*** (0.062) | 2.192*** (0.041) | 2.192*** (0.041) | 2.192*** (0.041) | |
| Number of observations | 8760 | 8760 | 8760 | 8760 | 8760 | 8760 | |
| Number of subjects | 73 | 73 | 73 | 73 | 73 | 73 | |
| Number of sessions | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | |
Notes. This table shows parameter estimates from multilevel mixed-effects REML regressions. The interaction “Third stage × Feedback” indicates the effect of showing feedback to subjects. In Models 1 to 3, the dependent variable is “length of antibiotic therapies (in days).” In Models 4 to 6, the dependent variable is “absolute deviation from the expert recommendations,” measured in absolute values of the difference between the pediatricians’ choices and the experts’ recommended therapy length (in days). For each case, the subjects’ choices were compared to the experts’ aggregate opinion for the respective case. Standard errors are shown in parentheses. “Economic preferences” comprise validated measures for trust, reciprocity, and altruism, as well as time and risk preferences.52–54 All models include session-, subject-, and case-specific random effects. In Model 5, the variance component at the session level is close to 0. Therefore, this model was estimated without grouping on the session level.
P < 0.1, **P < 0.05, ***P < 0.01.