Table 5.
Multilevel Mixed-Effects Panel Regression Models on the Association between Individual Characteristics and Responses to Feedback
| Length of Antibiotic Therapies (in Days) | Absolute Deviation from the Expert Recommendations (in Days) | |
|---|---|---|
| Characteristic | Model 1 | Model 2 |
| Fixed effects | ||
| Feedback (= 1 if intervention) | 0.801 (0.567) | 0.205 (0.376) |
| Second stage (= 1 if second stage) | −0.063 (0.107) | −0.086 (0.088) |
| Third stage (= 1 if third stage) | −0.112 (0.148) | −0.085 (0.114) |
| Effect of announcement (Second stage × Feedback) | −0.082 (0.147) | −0.068 (0.120) |
| Effect of feedback (Third stage × Feedback) | −0.879*** (0.222) | −0.548*** (0.168) |
| Experience (years in hospital) | −0.109*** (0.034) | −0.074*** (0.019) |
| Experience × Effect of feedback | 0.049*** (0.018) | 0.030** (0.013) |
| Female (= 1 if female) | 0.499 (0.422) | 0.022 (0.213) |
| Willingness to take risks | −0.208*** (0.078) | 0.003 (0.039) |
| Constant | 7.558*** (1.590) | 4.566*** (0.825) |
| Random effects | ||
| Session level | ||
| Var(Constant) | 0.307 (0.278) | 0.120*** (0.098) |
| Subject level | ||
| Var(Stage 2) | 0.226*** (0.066) | 0.153*** (0.044) |
| Var(Stage 3) | 0.583** (0.126) | 0.332*** (0.074) |
| Var(Constant) | 1.577 (0.482) | 1.068 (0.234) |
| Cov(Stage 2, Stage 3) | 0.233*** (0.075) | 0.144*** (0.047) |
| Cov(Stage 2, Constant) | −0.239* (0.136) | −0.283*** (0.083) |
| Cov(Stage 3, Constant) | −0.778*** (0.214) | −0.577*** (0.121) |
| Case level | ||
| Var(Constant) | 24.108*** (0.669) | 4.732*** (0.145) |
| Var(Residual) | 3.322*** (0.062) | 2.192*** (0.041) |
| Number of observations | 8760 | 8760 |
| Number of subjects | 73 | 73 |
| Number of sessions | 8 | 8 |
Notes. This table shows parameter estimates from multilevel mixed-effects REML regressions. The interaction “Third stage × Feedback” indicates the effect of showing feedback to subjects. The interaction “Experience × Effect of feedback” indicates the association between the subjects’ experience (number of years worked in hospital) and the effect of feedback. Standard errors are shown in parentheses. In both models, we controlled for the Big Five personality traits50,51 and for “economic preferences”, which comprise validated measures for trust, reciprocity, and altruism, as well as time and risk preferences.52–54 Both models include session-, subject-, and case-specific random effects.
P < 0.1, **P < 0.05, ***P < 0.01.