Table 3.
The most recent cellular and acellular reported studies using various forms of scaffolds for tissue engineering (TE) applications.
| Scaffold Structure | Method | Cells/Factors/Animal Model | Type | TE | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Collagen and denatured collagen (DCol) | Solution casting-freezing-thawing | Rabbit chondrocytes seeding | 3D porous | Cartilage | [54] |
| Collagen (Col)/carbon nanotube (CNT)/chitosan(CS)/hydroxyapatite (HAP) |
Freezing and lyophilization | - | 3D porous | Bone | [77] |
| Poly(lactic acid) (PLLA)/ polycaprolactone (PCL), and collagen type I | Freeze-drying | Adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells seeding | 3D porous | Skin | [92] |
| Silk fibroin | Freezing | - | 3D porous (sponge) | - | [93] |
| Decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM)/gelatin/chitosan | - | Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (BMSC) seeding | Porous | Meniscus | [94] |
| Collagen/dECM/silk fibroin (SF) | 3D printing | Pre-osteoblast MC3T3-E1 cells | 3D micro-nanoporous | Bone | [43] |
| Collagen | 3D Cell-printing | MC3T3-E1 | 3D porous | - | [44] |
| Collagen type I/agarose with sodium alginate | 3D printing | Primary chondrocytes | 3D porous hydrogel | Cartilage | [45] |
| α-TCP/collagen | 3D printing combined with a cell-printing | MC3T3-E1 cells | 3D porous | Bone | [46] |
| Polycaprolactone/polyvinyl acetate (PCL/PVAc)/poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)- one morphogenetic protein 2 (PLGA-BMP2) | Electrospinning and electrospraying | Osteogenic and osteoconductive markers (OCN and OPN) | 3D porous core-shell nanofibers |
Bone | [47] |
| Hydroxyapatite/gelatin-chitosan | Coaxial electrospinning | Human osteoblast like cell line (MG-63) | 3D porous nanofibers | Bone | [48] |
| Polycaprolactone (PCL) nanofibres/poly (lactic-co-glycolicacid) (PLGA) particles | Electrospinning | - | 3D porous nanofibers | Bone | [49] |
| Hydroxyapatite (HA), 5CuHA and 5MgHA | Sol-gel and physio-chemical mixing | - | 3D porous fibers | Bone | [50] |
| Chitosan/Sodium β-glycerophosphate/Gelatin (Cs/GP/Gel) | Freeze-drying | P3 bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) | 3D porous | Cartilage | [51] |
| Polyurethane (PU), rosemary (RM) oil, and copper sulphate (CuSO4) | Electrospinning | Fibroblast cells | Two-dimensional (2D) porous nanofiber | Bone | [52] |
| Chitosan (CS)/nano-hydroxyapatite (n-HAP) | Solution casting/Freeze-drying | MC3T3-E1 cells | Porous polymer/bioceramic | Bone | [78] |
| Alginate/gelatin/nano-hydroxyapatite (n-HAP) | - | MG63 cells | Hydrogel | Bone | [79] |
| Chitosan-gelatin (CS-Gel)/graphene oxide (GO) and Montmorillonite (MMT) | Freeze-drying | Human osteoblast cells | Porous | Bone | [53] |
| Gelatin, alginate, and poly (vinyl alcohol)/silver hydroxyapatite | Cryogelation | MC3T3-E1 preosteoblast cells |
3D porous spongy | Bone | [39] |
| Chitosan/alginate/hydroxyapatite/nanocrystalline cellulose | Freeze-drying | Fibroblast cells | 3D porous | Bone | [80] |
| Bacterial cellulose (BC)/magnetite (Fe3O4)/hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticles | Ultrasonic irradiation | Mouse fibroblast L929 cells and osteoblast (MC3T3-E1 cell line) |
3D microporous | Bone | [81] |
| Nipple-areolar complex (NAC) tissue | Decellularization | Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) |
Acellular | NAC | [85] |
| Decellularized myocardium extracellular matrix (ECM) and chitosan (CS) | Frozen and lyophilized | Human cardiac progenitor cells (hCPCs) | 3D macroporous cardiac | Myocardial | [88] |
| Decellularized pig oesophagi | Decellularization | Human aortic smooth muscle cells (hASMCs) or human adipose-derived stem cells (hASCs) | Esophageal acellular | Esophageal muscle layers | [89] |
| Acellular spinal | Decellularization | Rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells/Neurotrophic factor 3 (NT-3) | Acellular spinal | Spinal cord | [90] |
| Human dura mater | Acellularized | - | Acellular dura mater | - | [91] |
| Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG/poloxamer) (P407) | Photo-polymerization | Wistar rat thigh | Hydrogel | Artificial cornea periphery | [62] |
| Poly(ethyleneglycol)-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PEGPNIPAAm), /poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL) | Free-radical polymerization | Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) | Hydride hydrogel | Cartilage | [63] |
| 1% collagen microspheres and 0.3% collagen bulk | - | Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs)/Eight-week old male C57/BL6 mice | Microspheres hydrogel | Dermal | [64] |
| Methacrylathed pullulan | Multiscale light assisted 3D printing | Epithelial and mesenchymal cells |
2D and 3D hydrogel | - | [65] |
| Silk fibroin (SF)/gelatin/bacterial cellulose nanofibers (BCNFs) |
3D printing and lyophilization | L929 cells | Hydrogel | - | [66] |
| Chitosan/silk (particles, micro and nanofibers) | 3D printing | Human fibroblasts | Hydrogel | soft tissue | [67] |