Table 5.
Associations With HIV-Related Stigma Sub-Scales
| Variable | Enacted Stigma | Internalized Stigma | Avoidance Due ToInternalized Stigma | Anticipated Stigma |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | |
| Age | ||||
| 15–29 | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| 30–39 | 0.81 (0.70, 0.92)* | 0.68 (0.60, 0.77)** | 0.92 (0.81, 1.05) | 0.69 (0.61, 0.78)** |
| 40–49 | 0.72 (0.61, 0.85)** | 0.52 (0.45, 0.60)** | 1.09 (0.93, 1.27) | 0.57 (0.49, 0.66)** |
| 50 or more | 0.54 (0.43, 0.68)** | 0.47 (0.38, 0.57)** | 1.28 (1.03, 1.59) | 0.44 (0.36, 0.55)** |
| Gender/orientation | ||||
| Male | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| Female | 1.26 (1.13, 1.41)** | 1.02 (0.92, 1.13) | 1.44 (1.29, 1.61)** | 1.09 (0.99, 1.21) |
| LGBT | 1.62 (1.29. 2.04)** | 0.82 (0.66, 1.02) | 1.85 (1.48, 2.31)** | 1.69 (1.36, 2.09)** |
| HIV test decision | ||||
| Voluntary | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| Pressure | 1.20 (1.03, 1.40) | 1.35 (1.17, 1.56)** | 1.11 (0.96, 1.29) | 1.41 (1.22, 1.63)** |
| Coerced | 1.05 (0.85, 1.29) | 1.16 (0.95, 1.40) | 1.12 (0.92, 1.37) | 1.44 (1.19, 1.74)** |
| Years live with HIV | ||||
| 5 or more | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| 2–4 | 0.90 (0.80, 1.01) | 1.04 (0.93, 1.15) | 0.92 (0.82, 1.03) | 1.05 (0.94, 1.17) |
| 0–1 | 0.83 (0.69, 0.99) | 1.48 (1.26, 1.74)** | 0.82 (0.69, 0.97) | 1.12 (0.95, 1.33) |
| On ART | ||||
| No | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| Yes | 1.11 (0.95, 1.30) | 0.83 (0.72, 0.96)* | 1.16 (0.99, 1.35) | 1.01 (0.88, 1.17) |
| Sexually active | ||||
| No | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| Yes | 0.98 (0.83, 1.15) | 0.67 (0.58, 0.78)** | 0.51 (0.44, 0.59)** | 0.74 (0.64, 0.86)** |
| Relationship status | ||||
| Married or cohabiting | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| In relationship | 0.85 (0.74, 0.97) | 0.88 (0.78, 0.99) | 0.84 (0.74, 0.94)* | 0.95 (0.84, 1.08) |
| Single | 0.92 (0.78, 1.09) | 0.85 (0.73, 0.99) | 1.30 (1.11, 1.52)** | 1.05 (0.90, 1.23) |
| Divorced/widowed | 1.24 (1.01, 1.51) | 1.17 (0.97, 1.40) | 1.79 (1.48, 2.16)** | 1.45 (1.20, 1.74)** |
| Education | ||||
| Primary or none | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| Secondary | 1.21 (1.04, 1.39)* | 0.95 (0.84, 1.09) | 0.96 (0.84, 1.10) | 0.91 (0.80, 1.04) |
| Post-secondary | 1.17 (0.95, 1.44) | 1.19 (0.90, 1.43) | 0.92 (0.76, 1.12) | 1.07 (0.89, 1.30) |
| Household wealth status | ||||
| Low | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| Medium | 0.93 (0.93, 1.04) | 1.00 (0.90, 1.10) | 0.94 (0.84, 1.04) | 1.10 (0.99, 1.22) |
| High | 0.69 (0.57, 0.83)** | 0.95 (0.81, 1.12) | 0.68 (0.57, 0.81)** | 0.86 (0.72, 1.01) |
| Residence | ||||
| Rural area | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| A small town or village | 1.31 (1.16, 1.48)** | 0.86 (0.77, 0.96)* | 1.12 (1.00, 1.26) | 1.15 (1.03, 1.28) |
| A large town or city | 1.17 (1.01, 1.35) | 0.66 (0.58, 0.75)** | 1.21 (1.06, 1.39)* | 0.88 (0.77, 1.01) |
| Physical disability | ||||
| No | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| Yes | 1.77 (1.44, 2.18)** | 1.53 (1.25, 1.88)** | 1.49 (1.20, 1.85)** | 1.47 (1.20, 1.80)** |
| Self-rated health status | ||||
| Good | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| Fair or poor | 1.84 (1.51, 2.25)** | 1.85 (1.51, 2.25)** | 1.61 (1.31, 1.98)** | 1.79 (1.47, 2.17)** |
| Knowledge of PLHIV rights | ||||
| Low (0) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| Medium (1–2) | 1.39 (1.23, 1.57)** | 1.55 (1.39, 1.74)** | 1.71 (1.52, 1.93)** | 1.69 (1.51, 1.89)** |
| High (3–4) | 1.06 (0.93, 1.21) | 1.03 (0.91, 1.15) | 1.18 (1.04, 1.33)* | 1.12, 0.99, 1.26) |
| Member of HIV support group | ||||
| No | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) | 1 (Reference) |
| Yes | 1.17 (1.04, 1.32)* | 0.80 (0.72, 0.89)** | 0.64 (0.57, 0.72)** | 0.86 (0.77, 0.96)* |
Notes: **P<0.001; *P<0.01.
Abbreviation: AOR, adjusted odds ratio.