Table 2.
Association of gestational diabetes exposure and adiposity outcomes at 6–19 years, stratified by optimal versus suboptimal health behaviors
|
Breastmilk months < 6 |
Breastmilk months ≥ 6 |
||||||||||||||
| Unexposed |
Exposed |
p-value | Unexposed |
Exposed |
p-value | Interaction*p-value | |||||||||
| n | Mean | (95% CI) | n | Mean | (95% CI) | n | Mean | (95% CI) | n | Mean | (95% CI) | ||||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 399 | 20.6 | (19.9, 21.2) | 76 | 21.8 | (20.4, 23.3) | 0.08 | 391 | 19.7 | (19.0, 20.3) | 70 | 20.6 | (19.3, 22.1) | 0.18 | 0.82 |
| Waist-to-height ratio | 400 | 0.47 | (0.45, 0.48) | 75 | 0.49 | (0.46, 0.51) | 0.10 | 392 | 0.45 | (0.44, 0.46) | 71 | 0.46 | (0.44, 0.49) | 0.25 | 0.71 |
| Visceral adipose tissue (cm2) | 375 | 23.2 | (20.7, 25.9) | 71 | 28.3 | (23.0, 34.8) | 0.05 | 369 | 21.1 | (18.8, 23.6) | 69 | 23.5 | (19.1, 28.9) | 0.28 | 0.50 |
| Subcutaneous adipose tissue (cm2) | 375 | 121.8 | (107.0, 138.6) | 71 | 160.1 | (125.4, 204.3) | 0.03 | 369 | 106.7 | (93.5, 121.8) | 69 | 132.4 | (103.6, 169.1) | 0.08 | 0.73 |
| Skinfold ratio | 396 | 0.81 | (0.77, 0.86) | 75 | 0.95 | (0.85, 1.06) | 0.01 | 390 | 0.81 | (0.76, 0.86) | 70 | 0.92 | (0.83, 1.03) | 0.01 | 0.68 |
|
Healthy Eating Index < 60 |
Healthy Eating Index ≥ 60 |
||||||||||||||
| Unexposed |
Exposed |
p-value | Unexposed |
Exposed |
p-value | Interaction*p-value | |||||||||
| n | Mean | (95% CI) | n | Mean | (95% CI) | n | Mean | (95% CI) | n | Mean | (95% CI) | ||||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 572 | 20.2 | (19.7, 20.7) | 112 | 21.6 | (20.6, 22.7) | 0.006 | 218 | 20.1 | (19.4, 20.7) | 34 | 20.8 | (19.5, 22.2) | 0.25 | 0.24 |
| Waist-to-height ratio | 574 | 0.46 | (0.45, 0.47) | 111 | 0.49 | (0.47, 0.50) | 0.0006 | 218 | 0.46 | (0.45, 0.47) | 35 | 0.46 | (0.44, 0.49) | 0.73 | 0.02 |
| Visceral adipose tissue (cm2) | 538 | 22.3 | (20.2, 24.5) | 107 | 27.5 | (23.4, 32.4) | 0.004 | 206 | 22.0 | (19.5, 24.7) | 33 | 24.2 | (19.6, 29.8) | 0.35 | 0.22 |
| Subcutaneous adipose tissue (cm2) | 538 | 114.2 | (102.2, 127.5) | 107 | 155.5 | (128.7, 187.9) | 0.001 | 206 | 113.9 | (100.0, 129.6) | 33 | 136.3 | (108.4, 171.3) | 0.11 | 0.18 |
| Skinfold ratio | 569 | 0.80 | (0.76, 0.84) | 111 | 0.96 | (0.89, 1.04) | 0.0001 | 217 | 0.82 | (0.77, 0.88) | 34 | 0.91 | (0.78, 1.05) | 0.21 | 0.24 |
|
Vigorous activity ≤ 1 hour/day |
Vigorous activity > 1 hour/day |
||||||||||||||
| Unexposed |
Exposed |
p-value | Unexposed |
Exposed |
p-value | Interaction*p-value | |||||||||
| n | Mean | (95% CI) | n | Mean | (95% CI) | n | Mean | (95% CI) | n | Mean | (95% CI) | ||||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 584 | 20.2 | (19.7, 20.8) | 106 | 21.4 | (20.3, 22.6) | 0.03 | 206 | 20.0 | (19.4, 20.6) | 40 | 21.0 | (19.8, 22.3) | 0.12 | 0.74 |
| Waist-to-height ratio | 586 | 0.46 | (0.45, 0.47) | 106 | 0.48 | (0.46, 0.50) | 0.08 | 206 | 0.45 | (0.44, 0.46) | 40 | 0.47 | (0.45, 0.49) | 0.13 | 0.83 |
| Visceral adipose tissue (cm2) | 547 | 23.1 | (20.9, 25.6) | 103 | 26.7 | (22.6, 31.7) | 0.06 | 197 | 21.1 | (18.9, 23.7) | 37 | 24.9 | (20.2, 30.6) | 0.12 | 0.87 |
| Subcutaneous adipose tissue (cm2) | 547 | 118.1 | (105.3, 132.5) | 103 | 159.1 | (130.9, 193.3) | 0.001 | 197 | 110.1 | (97.1, 124.8) | 37 | 133.2 | (106.1, 167.2) | 0.10 | 0.30 |
| Skinfold ratio | 581 | 0.84 | (0.79, 0.88) | 105 | 0.89 | (0.81, 0.98) | 0.17 | 205 | 0.78 | (0.73, 0.83) | 40 | 0.98 | (0.86, 1.11) | 0.001 | 0.01 |
Data are means and standard error from linear mixed models with repeated adiposity measurements, adjusted for sex, race/ethnicity, age, pubertal status, age × pubertal status.
*
Interaction p-value refers to the interaction of GDM exposure with each health behavior (for example, breastmilk months category × GDM exposure).