Table 2.

Pathogenic NHP' viruses represent a major threat to humans, due to the severity of symptoms in infected persons.

Pathogens	Symptoms in monkey/ape	Transmission to human	Symptoms in human	What to do?
Rabies virus	Neurological symptoms (aggression, fear, salivation, paralysis)	Bite (saliva), scratches, licking. Animals can be contagious 2 weeks before the onset of symptoms	Incubation: weeks to months Neurological symptoms Nearly 100% fatal cases	Preventive rabies vaccine Post-exposure prophylaxis (anti-rabies immunoglobulins) Broad antibiotics coverage (to avoid bacterial infections related to bite)
Herpes B virus	Asymptomatic	Contact (mucosal, urine, feces) Bite	Incubation: 3 days to 5 weeks Flu-like symptoms. Fatal meningoencephalitis cases (up to 70%)	Post-exposure prophylaxis acyclovir therapy
Monkeypox virus	Fever, facial edema, Pox-like lesions Fatal cases	Bite, scratches, scraping, cough, respiratory droplets, insufficiently cooked meat consumption	Incubation: 14 days Pox-like lesions (rash with vesicles and pustules) Polyadenopathy, diarrhea Fatal cases (up to 10%)	Smallpox vaccine confer partial cross-immunity Symptoms treatment Antiviral therapy under evaluation (cidofovir)
Marburg virus; Ebola virus	Severe hemorrhagic fever Fatal cases	Contact (blood, body fluids) Bite	Incubation: 2 days to 3 weeks. Severe hemorrhagic fever. Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea. Fatal hemorrhagic cases (around 50%)	Vaccine under evaluation. Symptoms treatment (fever, pain, dehydration) Antiviral therapy under evaluation
Yellow fever virus	Hemorrhagic fever Fatal cases	Mosquito vector	Incubation: 3 days to 2 weeks. Hemorrhagic disease Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, jaundice Symptoms disappear in 3–4 days Toxic phase in a small % of cases. Fatal cases (around 50%)	Preventive YFV vaccine (99% immunity). Symptoms treatment (fever, pain, dehydration)

The table summarizes which viruses known to infect NHP, can be transmitted to humans and their deleterious effects for the infected people. The medications mentioned in the right column (pre-exposure prophylaxis, post-exposure prophylaxis, and/or post-infection medication) are indicative but protocols should be adapted to each clinical situation. For more detail see (172, 180, 181). Also see: WHO guide for rabies pre and post exposure prophylaxis in humans: https://www.who.int/rabies/PEP_Prophylaxis_guideline_15_12_2014.pdf; CDC B virus: https://www.cdc.gov/herpesbvirus/prevention.html; CDC Monkeypox: https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/clinicians/treatment.html; WHO Ebola: https://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/ebola/patient-care-CCUs/en/; CDC Marburg: https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/marburg/treatment/index.html; CDC Yellow fever: https://www.cdc.gov/yellowfever/index.html.