Table 4.

Four types of collective action identified in the 32 articles reviewed

Type	Definition	Examples of individuals or organizations leading collective efforts
Externally led	External agencies or organizations envision, champion, and fund efforts to promote widespread contributions to invasive species control. Such efforts typically include financial incentives or penalties or technical support to landowners.	national, state, or local governments, international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), state‐sponsored extension programs, or university research teams
Community led	Private landowners or residents provide support, apply social pressure, or organize collaborative efforts with other landowners to control invasive species across property boundaries.	private landowners or residents
Comanaged	Private landowners or residents enter in cooperative arrangements with external agencies or organizations to promote invasive species control at a landscape scale. External agencies or organizations often provide regulations and litigation, incentives, technical assistance, or educational outreach.	agencies or organizations (e.g., state and local government agencies, private companies, NGOs, and universities) and private landowners and residents
Organizational coalitions	Institutions with a formal or informal mesolevel authority and formal networks of government agencies cooperate to control invasive species at a regional scale. Such organizational coalitions coordinate invasive species management programs and activities, pool resources, encourage consistent regulation and engagement, or facilitate management at appropriate ecological scales.	organizations such as Cooperative Weed Management Areas or Cooperative Invasive Species Management Areas in the United States (i.e., partnerships of local, state, and federal government agencies, private landowners, interested stakeholders, and organizations with environmental mandates)