Table 1.
Descriptive statistics of each condition.
| Characters | (1) Lower graders N = 82 |
(2) Higher graders N = 77 |
(3) Middle school students N = 65 |
(4) Undergraduates N = 61 |
F values | Groups comparison | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | ||||
| Age (years) | 8.47(0.85) | 11.2(0.99) | 14.31(0.68) | 23.23(1.94) | 2709.34*** | (1) < (2) < (3) < (4) | |
| Single-character level | |||||||
| Oral speed (c/min) | 93.51(18.53) | 113.14 (22.47) | 129.58 (19.11) | 138.96 (32.02) | 50.72*** | (1) < (2) < (3) = (4) | |
| Silent speed (c/min) | 139.65 (41.87) | 165.81 (65.50) | 184.35 (55.30) | 214.75 (72.66) | 17.96*** | (1) < (2) = (3) < (4) | |
| Sentence level | |||||||
| Oral speed (c/min) | 152.64 (29.51) | 189.24 (64.09) | 251.28 (77.66) | 304.04 (92.75) | 62.73*** | (1) < (2) < (3) < (4) | |
| Oral accuracy | 0.80 (0.07) | 0.84 (0.07) | 0.87 (0.06) | 0.92 (0.03) | 43.53*** | (1) < (2) < (3) < (4) | |
| Silent speed (c/min) | 264.91 (90.59) | 352.67 (156.41) | 473.93 (217.40) | 507.99 (205.11) | 29.23*** | (1) < (2) < (3) = (4) | |
| Silent accuracy | 0.81 (0.05) | 0.83 (0.08) | 0.87 (0.06) | 0.92 (0.04) | 39.93*** | (1) = (2) < (3) < (4) | |
| VAS tasks | |||||||
| VAS RT(ms) | 1,698 (436) | 1,360 (330) | 1,051 (209) | 944 (265) | 64.03*** | (1) < (2) < (3) = (4) | |
| VAS d-prime | 0.53 (0.36) | 0.55 (0.39) | 0.57 (0.40) | 0.68 (0.30) | 2.06 | — | |
| RAN (s) | 21.66 (3.33) | 10.52 (2.39) | 8.80 (1.28) | 8.04 (2.42) | 462.47*** | (1) < (2) < (3) = (4) | |
| Reasoning ability | RSPM | RSPM | Math test score | Math test score | |||
| 34.76(11.75) | 41.17(9.36) | 67.24(17.69) | 108.85(10.60) | — | — | ||
| Language level | Chinese character test | Chinese character test | Chinese test score | Chinese test score | |||
| 1130.72(433.56) | 2647.05(593.52) | 68.97(9.07) | 112.56(6.47) | — | — | ||
The descriptive statistics for the valid participants who responded above the chance level in the visual 1-back task. Measure units are in the parentheses for each item in the “Characters” column. RAN, the scores in the digital rapid automatized naming test. Reasoning ability, the performances of RSPM in children from primary schools, scores in the latest final math examination for middle school students, and the math scores of college entrance examination for university students. Language level, the scores in Chinese character recognition test in primary school students, the scores in the latest final Chinese examination for middle school students, and the scores of college entrance Chinese examination for university students. VAS RT, correct reaction times in the visual 1-back task. VAS d-prime, d′ values in the visual 1-back task.
p < 0.001.