Table 1.

Summary of cleaning strategies presented

Classification, examples	Benefits	Limitations/risks
Osmolarity disruption
Acids; acetic acid, chlorine, citric acid	Disrupts cell membranes Easily neutralized Low or no toxicity at dilute concentrations	Microbial tolerance to or metabolization renders substance ineffective
Bases; ammonia, sodium bicarbonate
Alcohols; isopropanol, ethanol
Quaternary ammonia; Alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride, benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride, dialkyldimethylammonium chloride	Electrostatic damage to anionic microbial cell membranes Effective against Gram‐positive bacteria Stable over time Low odor	Less effective against gram‐negative bacteria Little activity against bacterial endospores or viruses
Oxidation
Halogens; iodine, chlorine, fluorine	Creates reactive‐oxygen species which disrupt chemical bonds on DNA, RNA, proteins, fatty acids Immediate effect Broad targeting Reactivity reduces persistence	Chlorine products may only be effective at certain pH ranges
Hydrogen peroxide
Sodium hypochlorite
Ozone		Reactivity may damage surfaces
Coagulation
Alcohols and phenols	Alters chemical bonds that denature and coagulate proteins Easily neutralizes or evaporates	Microbial tolerance to or metabolization renders substance ineffective
Aldehydes
Ammonia compounds
Halophenol; chloroxylenol	Disrupts cell membranes, blocks adenosine triphosphate production	Resistance common in molds or Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Detergents and surfactants
Detergents; sodium laureth sulfate, ammonium lauryl sulfate, amphoteric sodium deoxycholate, bile salts, Tween, and Triton	Disrupts lipids, and may lyse cells, via hydrophobic interactions Can decrease cell metabolism Disrupts attachment to surface Cationic detergents disrupt lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan Anionic detergents disrupt lipopolysaccharide	Disinfection capacity diminished at temperatures <27°C Insufficient detergent activation can stimulate bacterial metabolism Associated with irritation and endocrine disruption of animal cells
Enzyme targeting
Triclosan	Prevents formation of membranes in bacteria	Persistence in animal tissues, water, soil, and dust increases human exposure risk and potential for antimicrobial resistance Endocrine disruption of animal cells Suppresses immune cell response in some immunological disorders Not been shown to reduce disease transmission
Triclocarban	Disrupts peptidoglycan in cell wall
Microbial‐based products
Containing microbial byproducts (enzymes)	Highly effective against organic material May be effective against microbial biofilms	Shorter shelf‐life than most commercial cleaning products Limited by enzyme specificity for target, temperature range
Containing microorganisms	May degrade organic material Successfully incorporated into waste water treatment systems Promising in vitro work but in situ experimental design challenges preclude assessment of efficacy of surface cleaners	Promising in vitro work but in situ experimental design challenges preclude assessment of efficacy of surface cleaners
Metals
Copper	Immediate effect Disrupts osmolarity and basic cell function; promotes cell death	Wet copper is less effective than a dry copper surface Oxygen may limit effectiveness
Titanium dioxide	Photocatalytic properties make it more effective with UV light Effective against prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells	May be toxic to animal cells