Table 1.

Growing a new human kidney^a

Authors and reference nos.	Achievements
Osathanondh and Potter4, 5, 6, 7	Microdissection studies of normal and malformed human embryonic kidneys
Keller et al.8	Counting glomeruli in human kidneys
Grobstein9	Organ culture of embryonic mouse kidneys
Klein et al.10	Manipulating mouse kidney development in organ culture by targeting a specific protein
Lindström et al.11, 12, 13	Morphologic and molecular comparisons of human and mouse native developing kidneys
Taguchi et al.14; Taguchi and Nishinakamura15	Definition of growth factors and other molecules that pattern intermediate mesoderm to form the metanephric mesenchyme or the ureteric bud
Taguchi and Nishinakamura15; Takasato et al.16; Lam et al.17; Morizane et al.18	Defining in vitro protocols to drive hPSCs to kidney precursor cells
Takasato et al.19; Morizane and Bonventre20; Hale et al.21; Wu et al.22	Generating 3D kidney organoids from hPSCs and detailed molecular profiling of these tissues
Bantounas et al.23; van den Berg et al.24; Homan et al.25	Enhancing glomerular vascularization and maturation of glomerular basement membrane using in vivo implants or perfusion in culture
Freedman et al.26; Benedetti et al.27; Czerniecki et al.28	Using hPSC-derived kidney structures to model genetic kidney disease and test drug therapies

hPSC, human pluripotent stem cell; 3D, 3-dimensional.

^aUnderpinning historical reports using native kidneys, as well as more recent studies using kidney tissues derived from pluripotent stem cells. The list is not exhaustive.