Table 3.
Factors associated with childhood stunting identified by multilevel logistic regression, Nigeria 2008
| Covariates | Model 1 empty | Model 2 individual | Model 3 community | Model 4 individual & community | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR | 95% CI | P‐value | aOR | 95% CI | P‐value | aOR | 95% CI | P‐value | aOR | 95% CI | P‐value | |
| Individual‐level factors | ||||||||||||
| Child factors | ||||||||||||
| Child's age (months) | ||||||||||||
| 0–11 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| 12–23 | 2.24 | (1.94–2.60) | <0.001 | 2.36 | (2.04–2.74) | <0.001 | ||||||
| 24–35 | 2.01 | (1.72–2.34) | <0.001 | 2.12 | (1.82–2.48) | <0.001 | ||||||
| 36–47 | 1.99 | (1.71–2.32) | <0.001 | 2.09 | (1.79–2.44) | <0.001 | ||||||
| 48–59 | 1.97 | (1.68–2.30) | <0.001 | 2.06 | (1.76–2.41) | <0.001 | ||||||
| Sex | ||||||||||||
| Female | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Male | 1.17 | (1.10–1.25) | <0.001 | 1.04 | (1.10–1.26) | <0.001 | ||||||
| Type of birth | ||||||||||||
| Single birth | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Multiple birth | 1.84 | (1.49–2.26) | <0.001 | 1.89 | (1.52–2.32) | <0.001 | ||||||
| Birthweight (g) | ||||||||||||
| ≥2500 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Low <2500 | 1.21 | (1.10–1.33) | <0.001 | 1.21 | (1.10–1.33) | <0.001 | ||||||
| Maternal/household factors | ||||||||||||
| Mother's age (years) | ||||||||||||
| 15–24 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| 25–34 | 0.98 | (0.90–1.07) | 0.635 | 0.99 | (0.92–1.09) | 0.982 | ||||||
| 35–49 | 0.88 | (0.80–0.97) | 0.007 | 0.91 | (0.82–0.99) | 0.044 | ||||||
| Birth interval (months) | ||||||||||||
| ≥24 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| <24 | 1.18 | (1.08–1.28) | <0.001 | 1.19 | (1.09–1.30) | <0.001 | ||||||
| Maternal education | ||||||||||||
| No education | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Primary | 0.98 | (0.89–1.08) | 0.707 | 0.98 | (0.78–1.07) | 0.267 | ||||||
| Secondary | 0.83 | (0.74–0.94) | 0.002 | 0.84 | (0.64–0.97) | 0.024 | ||||||
| Higher | 0.73 | (0.58–0.92) | 0.008 | 0.75 | (0.35–0.86) | 0.001 | ||||||
| MHSBI | ||||||||||||
| First quantile (least) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Second quantile | 0.97 | (0.88–1.08) | 0.613 | 1.09 | (0.94–1.26) | 0.990 | ||||||
| Third quantile | 0.92 | (0.82–1.03) | 0.131 | 0.96 | (0.85–1.24) | 0.321 | ||||||
| Fourth quantile | 0.88 | (0.78–0.99) | 0.038 | 0.92 | (0.82–1.10) | 0.238 | ||||||
| Fifth quantile (highest) | 0.70 | (0.60–0.80) | <0.001 | 0.83 | (0.66–0.92) | <0.001 | ||||||
| Mother's BMI (kg/m2) | ||||||||||||
| 18.5–24.9 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| <18.5 | 1.27 | (1.15–1.39) | <0.001 | 1.26 | (1.14–1.39) | <0.001 | ||||||
| ≥25.0 | 0.79 | (0.71–0.85) | <0.001 | 0.79 | (0.72–0.87) | <0.001 | ||||||
| Mother's occupation | ||||||||||||
| Not working | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Manual | 1.02 | (0.93–1.11) | 0.720 | 1.03 | (0.94–1.12) | 0.557 | ||||||
| White collar | 1.00 | (0.90–1.08) | 0.768 | 1.03 | (0.94–1.14) | 0.452 | ||||||
| Breast feeding (months) | ||||||||||||
| <6 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| 6–12 | 2.13 | (1.83–2.48) | <0.001 | 2.14 | (1.84–2.49) | <0.001 | ||||||
| 13–24 | 2.66 | (2.24–3.17) | <0.001 | 2.52 | (2.12–3.00) | <0.001 | ||||||
| >24 | 3.74 | (2.90–4.83) | <0.001 | 3.52 | (2.73–4.55) | <0.001 | ||||||
| Immunization | ||||||||||||
| Complete | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Incomplete | 1.05 | (0.98–1.13) | 0.158 | 1.06 | (0.95–1.17) | 0.284 | ||||||
| Number of under‐fives | ||||||||||||
| ≥Four | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Three | 0.93 | (0.54–1.55) | 0.726 | 0.84 | (0.51–1.42) | 0.888 | ||||||
| Two | 0.92 | (0.54–1.54) | 0.736 | 0.83 | (0.49–1.41) | 0.778 | ||||||
| One | 0.85 | (0.50–1.43) | 0.529 | 0.78 | (0.46–1.32) | 0.745 | ||||||
| Ethnicity | ||||||||||||
| Major | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Minor | 0.97 | (0.89–1.06) | 0.506 | 0.99 | (0.89–1.10) | 0.873 | ||||||
| Family type | ||||||||||||
| Monogamy | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Polygamy | 1.12 | (0.93–1.21) | 0.056 | 1.10 | (0.96–1.19) | 0.123 | ||||||
| Household head | ||||||||||||
| Male | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Female | 0.97 | (0.85–1.10) | 0.602 | 1.01 | (0.89–1.16) | 0.832 | ||||||
| Wealth index | ||||||||||||
| Fifth quantile (richest) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Fourth quantile | 1.20 | (1.04–1.39) | <0.001 | 1.21 | (1.04–1.41) | 0.014 | ||||||
| Third quantile | 1.52 | (1.30–1.78) | <0.001 | 1.51 | (1.27–1.79) | <0.001 | ||||||
| Second quantile | 1.64 | (1.39–1.92) | <0.001 | 1.58 | (1.31–1.91) | <0.001 | ||||||
| First quantile (poorest) | 1.71 | (1.45–2.03) | <0.001 | 1.64 | (1.33–2.01) | <0.001 | ||||||
| Community‐level factors | ||||||||||||
| Residence | ||||||||||||
| Urban | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| Rural | 1.21 | (0.91–1.36) | 0.099 | 1.27 | (0.94–1.42) | 0.336 | ||||||
| Region | ||||||||||||
| North central | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| North west | 1.13 | (1.02–1.23) | <0.001 | 1.26 | (1.14–1.29) | <0.001 | ||||||
| North east | 1.28 | (1.22–1.46) | 0.024 | 1.35 | (1.27–1.43) | 0.036 | ||||||
| South east | 0.45 | (0.38–0.54) | <0.001 | 0.49 | (0.39–0.56) | <0.001 | ||||||
| South south | 0.66 | (0.57–0.77) | <0.001 | 0.76 | (0.78–0.89) | <0.001 | ||||||
| South west | 0.86 | (0.74–0.99) | 0.040 | 0.97 | (0.72–1.00) | 0.044 | ||||||
| Poverty rate | ||||||||||||
| Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| High | 1.01 | (0.93–1.08) | 0.921 | 1.05 | (0.89–1.10) | 0.524 | ||||||
| Illiteracy rate | ||||||||||||
| Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| High | 1.37 | (1.06–1.76) | <0.001 | 1.49 | (1.19–1.88) | <0.001 | ||||||
| Unemployment rate | ||||||||||||
| Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| High | 1.00 | (0.95–1.06) | 0.964 | 0.95 | (0.81–1.11) | 0.521 | ||||||
| Proper sanitation | ||||||||||||
| Yes | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| No | 1.05 | (0.99–1.12) | 0.091 | 1.21 | (0.89–1.35) | 0.528 | ||||||
| Safe water | ||||||||||||
| Yes | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
| No | 1.06 | (1.00–1.13) | 0.046 | 1.08 | (0.74–1.15) | 0.087 | ||||||
aOR, adjusted odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; BMI, body mass index; MHSBI, maternal health‐seeking behaviour index.