Table 1. Study characteristics related to the study design, location, number of participants, mean age, and inclusion and exclusion criteria.
| Author | Study design | Location | No. participants | Mean age | Inclusion criteria | Exclusion criteria |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| With Pelvic Floor Dysfunction | ||||||
| Bø et al. (27) | Cross-sectional | Europe | 13 | 46.5 | Consecutive women, at their first consultation in an ongoing randomized clinical trial on PFMT to reduce POP | Inability to understand the Norwegian language and contract the PFMs; nulliparous or less than 12 m pp; previous pelvic surgery; chronic lung disease, or stage 0 and 4 POP measured by the POP quantified |
| Tajiri et al. (22) | Randomized control trial | Asia | 15 | 52 | Women who had experienced one or more SUI events in the last 1 m | NR |
| Without Pelvic Floor Dysfunction | ||||||
| Bø et al. (26) | Cross-sectional | Europe | 3 | 31.6 | Physical therapists; aged 30-33 y; extensive experience in correct PFM contractions | NR |
| Bø et al. (25) | Cross-sectional | Europe | 6 | 19.5 | Women aged 19-21 y; nulliparous; no history of UI, neurological disease, or urinary tract infection; exercising regularly more than 3×/week | NR |
| Sapsford et al. (6) | Cross-sectional | Australia | 7 | 49.3 | Parous women with a history of vaginal deliveries | History of PFD or LBP; abdominal or pelvic surgery; neurological or respiratory condition; regularly performing sit-ups or AbM training |
| Neumann et al. (33) | Cross-sectional | Australia | 4 | 34 | Nulliparous women aged 25-42 y, who were tested on two occasions 1 week apart | Skinfold thickness of >2.5 cm; history of LBP; known or suspected pregnancy; UI; urinary tract or vaginal infection; surgery involving incision of the left abdominal wall |
| Madill et al. (9) | Cross-sectional | Canada | 15 | 36.3 | Continent women aged 21- 60 y; not pregnant; had not given birth in the previous 12 months; in good general health | History of DM, neurological conditions, or autoimmune CT disorders; used any medications to treat or known to exacerbate UI; previous history of SUI |
| Thompson et al. (37)a | Cross-sectional | Australia | 13 | 37 | Women aged 20-55 y and premenopausal or on HRT and consistent PFM exercise technique | History of urinary tract or vaginal infection; known or suspected pregnancy; surgery involving incision of the abdominal wall; obesity; history of LBP or sporting activities; neurological disorders; inability to understand English |
| Madill et al. (32) | Cross-sectional | Canada | 15 | 36.3 | Women aged 21-60 y; no history of SUI; not pregnant or had not given birth in the previous 12 m and in good general health | History of DM; neurological conditions; autoimmune CT disorders; used any medications to treat or known to exacerbate UI; history of SUI |
| Junginger et al. (30) | Cross-sectional | NR | 9 | 42 | Volunteers without PFM disorders; aged 32-59 y; with height of 157-174 cm and weight of 57-72 kg | History of LBP; hip or abdominal surgery or history of PFD and of laparotomy |
| Strupp et al. (35) | Cross-sectional | Central and South America | 34 | 28.1 | Willingness to participate in the study and ability to contract the PFM and perform the AHT correctly | Unable to contract AbM and PFM correctly; pregnancy; neurological disease; autoimmune CT disorder or PFD |
| Chmielewska et al. (28) | Cross-sectional | Europe | 19 | 23.6 | Continent women aged 19-28 y | SUI; pregnancy; childbirth(s); pelvic surgery; DM; hypertension; neurological abnormalities; urinary tract infection; elevated temperature; practicing a professional sport; spinal pain; obesity |
| Silva et al. (23) | Prospective | Central and South America | 25 | 24.76 | Women aged 18-35 y; no history of UI | Virgin women; abdominal-pelvic surgeries; metabolic disorders; presence of myopathies and collagen diseases, neurological disorders, cognitive disturbance and physical limitations; previous PFM training; inability to contract PFM |
| Ithamar et al. (39) | Cross-sectional | Central and South America | 30 | 25.77 | women aged 18-35 y; BMI between 18.50-24.99 kg/m2; abdominal skinfold ≤3 cm; with active or irregularly active physical activity | Abdominal or pelvic surgery; pregnancy; metabolic disorders; smoking; neurological; respiratory or cardiac disease; PFD or menstrual dysfunctions |
| Both | ||||||
| Devreese et al. (29) | Cross-sectional | Europe | C: 40 I: 40 | C: 50.9 I: 48.4 | Patients were referred by the hospital for an individual pelvic floor exercise program | Subjects with a vaginal, urethral, or bladder infection, neurological disorders, LBP or pregnancy |
| Thompson et al. (38)b | Cross-sectional | Australia | C: 13 I: 13 | C: 37 I: 38 | Inclusion criteria for both groups were women aged 20-55 y, premenopausal or on HRT, and using a consistent PFM exercise technique | History of urinary tract or vaginal infection; known or suspected pregnancy; surgery involving incision of the abdominal wall; obesity; history of LBP or sporting activities; neurological disorders; inability to understand English |
| Madill et al. (31) | Cross-sectional | Canada | C: 28 I: 44 | C: 46.8 I: 49.65 | C and SUI women aged 21-60 y; not pregnant and not given birth in the last 12 m; in good general health. | Previous gynecological or continence surgery, POP greater than stage 2; intrinsic sphincter deficiency; history of DM; neurological conditions; autoimmune CT disorders; use of any medications to treat or known to exacerbate UI |
| Arab et al. (24) | Cross-sectional | Asia | C: 10 I: 10 | C: 41.66 I: 38.47 | Women who had UI, were premenopausal, or were on HRT. Asymptomatic females, matched in age and body mass index and with no symptoms of UI. | Pregnancy and parturition in the previous 12 m; neurological or respiratory disorders; severe LBP; POP greater than stage 2; surgery of the abdominal or pelvic regions |
| Tajiri (36) | Cross-sectional | Asia | C: 25I: 7 | C: 45.8 I: 50.1 | Primiparous women | Not reported |
| Ptaszkowski et al. (34) | Cross-sectional | Europe | C: 14 I: 16 | C: 66.1 I: 63.9 | Control group: no history of SUI; UI group: history of SUI. | Inability to contract the PFMs; previous gynecological and abdominal surgery; neurologic condition; contraindications to measurements such as infection, menstruation, and allergy to nickel; other symptoms of PFD |
a
Thompson et al. study (37).
b
Thompson et al. study (38).
Abbreviations: NR: not reported; C: continent; I: incontinent; No. number; PFM: pelvic floor muscle; PFD: pelvic floor dysfunction; PFMT: pelvic floor muscle training; AbM: abdominal muscle; LBP: low back pain; HRT: hormone replacement therapy; DM: Diabetes mellitus; UI: urinary incontinence; POP: pelvic organ prolapse; CT: connective tissue; y: years; m: months; pp: postpartum; SUI: stress urinary incontinence; cm: centimeters; kg: kilograms; AHT: abdominal hypopressive technique; BMI: body mass index; cm: centimeters