Table 2. Unadjusted and adjusted generalized linear mixed-effects models of factors associated with daily illicit opioid use among 1,152 people who use drugs with chronic pain in Vancouver, Canada.
| Characteristic | Unadjusted | Adjusted | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | p-Value | OR (95% CI) | p-Value | |
| Cannabis use* | ||||
| Occasional versus none | 1.04 (0.77–1.40) | 0.818 | 0.94 (0.69–1.27) | 0.682 |
| Daily versus none | 0.60 (0.40–0.90) | 0.013 | 0.50 (0.33–0.74) | <0.001 |
| Sex | ||||
| Male versus female | 0.65 (0.41–1.03) | 0.067 | ||
| Age | ||||
| Per year older | 0.90 (0.88–0.92) | <0.001 | 0.92 (0.90–0.94) | <0.001 |
| Race | ||||
| White versus other | 0.98 (0.62–1.54) | 0.920 | ||
| Follow-up period | ||||
| Per 6-month interval | 0.99 (0.94–1.05) | 0.767 | ||
| Downtown Eastside residency* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 2.71 (1.99–3.69) | <0.001 | 2.12 (1.54–2.90) | <0.001 |
| Homelessness* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 2.95 (2.07–4.21) | <0.001 | 1.91 (1.33–2.73) | <0.001 |
| Incarceration* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 2.00 (1.16–3.46) | 0.013 | 1.27 (0.73–2.22) | 0.393 |
| Employment* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.73 (0.54–0.99) | 0.044 | 0.79 (0.58–1.07) | 0.134 |
| Opioid agonist therapy* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.90 (0.66–1.22) | 0.495 | ||
| Daily alcohol consumption* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.91 (0.57–1.44) | 0.673 | ||
| Daily crack/cocaine use* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 2.77 (1.94–3.96) | <0.001 | 2.74 (1.93–3.90) | <0.001 |
| Daily methamphetamine use* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 6.63 (4.31–10.19) | <0.001 | 4.60 (3.02–7.02) | <0.001 |
| HIV serostatus | ||||
| Positive versus negative | 0.41 (0.26–0.65) | <0.001 | 0.48 (0.32–0.74) | <0.001 |
| Pain prescription* | ||||
| Yes versus no | 0.67 (0.51–0.88) | 0.004 | 0.86 (0.65–1.13) | 0.274 |
| Average past-week pain rate | ||||
| Mild–moderate versus none | 1.33 (1.00–1.75) | 0.046 | ||
| Severe versus none | 1.75 (1.29–2.37) | <0.001 | ||
*Refers to exposures/behaviours in the previous 6 months.