Table 1.
Characteristics at enrollment (≤16 weeks’ gestation) and infant outcomes among pregnant women in rural Bangladesh (n=289).
| % (n) or mean ±SD | |
|---|---|
| Maternal age (years) | 23.1 ±4.3 |
| Gravidity | |
| 0 | 41.2 (119) |
| 1 | 31.8 (92) |
| ≥2 | 27.0 (78) |
| Maternal education | |
| No formal schooling or primary school | 47.4 (137) |
| Secondary school and higher | 52.6 (152) |
| Monthly household income | |
| ≤4,000 tk (~ $48) | 33.9 (98) |
| >4,000 tk (~ $48) | 66.1 (191) |
| Husband engaged in agricultural work (% yes) | 22.8 (66) |
| Body mass index at enrollment (<16 weeks’ gestation) | |
| Underweight (<18.5 kg/m2) | 23.2 (67) |
| Normal weight (18.5 to <25.0 kg/m2) | 67.8 (196) |
| Overweight (≥25.0 kg/m2) | 9.0 (26) |
| Secondhand smoke exposure (% yes) | 38.5 (111) |
| Concentration of arsenic in participant’s drinking water (μg/L) | 21.1 ±58.3 |
| Maternal hemoglobin level (g/dL) | 11.3 ±1.4 |
| Maternal dietary intake at approximately 28 weeks’ gestation | |
| Total energy intake (kcal/day) | 3589 ±1115 |
| Carbohydrate intake (% calories) | 63.6 ±5.0 |
| Fat intake (% calories) | 16.9 ±3.4 |
| Protein intake (% calories) | 17.1 ±2.3 |
| Grain intake (g/day) | 1782 ±354 |
| Dal intake (g/day) | 100 ±79 |
| Vegetable intake (g/day) | 190 ±119 |
| Fruit intake (g/day) | 130 ±84 |
| Meat intake (g/day) | 724 ±304 |
| Dairy intake (g/day) | 241 ±139 |
| Birth outcomes | |
| Total gestational weight gain (kg) | 7.9 ±3.0 |
| Gestational age at birth (weeks) | 37.7 ±1.8 |
| Preterm birth (% yes) a | 22.8 (66) |
| Infant sex | |
| Male | 52.6 (152) |
| Female | 47.4 (137) |
| Low birth weight (% yes) b | 13.5 (39) |
| Small for gestational age c | 12.1 (35) |
| Follow-up 1 outcomes | |
| Infant age (years) | 1.1 ±0.1 |
| Stunted (% yes) d | 68.2 (197) |
| Follow-up 2 outcomes | |
| Infant age (years) | 2.2 ±0.2 |
| Stunted (% yes) d | 48.8 (141) |
a
Preterm birth was defined as delivery at <37 weeks’ gestation.
b
Low birth weight was defined as birth weight <2.5 kg.
c
Small for gestational age was defined as weight-for-gestational age percentile <10 based on the INTERGROWTH-21st standards.
d
Stunting was defined as length-for-age z-score <−2 SD based on the WHO Growth Reference Charts.