Table 3.

Included studies parent feeding practices (n = 9)

First author year location/setting study name	Design	Sample N & key descriptions	Exposure & measurement	Outcome/s, reference population & measurement	Key findings	MMAT score (* , ** , *** , ****)a
•Saxon et al., 2002 •The United States	•Cross section	•N = 48 •41% female Infants •54% of infants full formula fed	•Feeding infant by demand or by schedule •Measured via self‐reported questionnaire at 6 months (asked consider the feeding routine from birth to 6 months)	•Weight percentile •Standardised using National Centre for Health Statistics (1979) reference population using ANTHRO software •Medical records for weight at 2, 4, & 6 months	•Feeding by demand or schedule had no effect on weight percentile	**
•Li et al., 2008 •The United States •Infant feeding practice Study II	•Longitudinal postal survey	•N = 1,896 •35.9% of infants has “low” (<20% of all milk feeds) breastfeeding intensity	•Bottle emptying, “infant initiated” and “mother initiated” •Measure via self‐reported at 2, 3, 4, 5, & 6‐month survey	•Weight for age z‐score, z‐score > 1 defined as excess weight •Standardised using CDC reference population •Weight reported by mother at 3, 6, 7, & 12‐month survey	•Multiple logistic regression (n = 1,187) found infants that frequently emptied the bottle were 69% more likely (odds ratio) to have excess weight than those that rarely did •Infants of mothers who frequently encouraged baby to finish the bottle were less likely to have excess weight gain that those that rarely did	***
•Worobey et al., 2009 •The United States	•Longitudinal study	•N = 242 recruited after loss to follow up over the 6 months N = 96 •48% female, •100% of infants full formula fed, recruited from one WIC (women, infants, and children) Centre	•Number of formula feeds per day & maternal sensitivity to infant cues while feeding •Measured with NCAST at home visit at 6 months	•Absolute weight gain (6–12 months) •Not standardised. •Weight directly measured at 3, 6, & 12 months	•Lower maternal sensitivity to infant cues (statistically significant in forward & backward regression) and higher number of feeds (only statistically significant in backward regression model) per day associated with more weight gain between 6 and 12 months	***
•Gubbels et al., 2011 •The Netherlands •KOALA birth cohort study	•Prospective longitudinal cohort study	•N = 2,834 •49% female •15.5% of infants never breast fed; 33.3% breast fed for 1–3 months	•Feeding infant by demand or by schedule •Measured via self‐reported questionnaire at 3 months	•Absolute weight gain (birth—12 months), standardised BMI z‐score (at 1, 2 years) BMI z‐score > 85th percentile defined as overweight •Standardised to local reference population •Weight reported by parent at 3 months, 1 year, & 2‐year survey	•No difference between the schedule or demand group in terms of weight gain from birth—12 months or BMI.	***
•Mihrshahi et al., 2011 •Australia •Nourish randomised control trial	•Cross section baseline data of a randomised control trial	•N = 612 •50% female •26.5% of infants formula fed only; 16.3% mixed fed with breast and formula milk	•Feeding infant by demand or by schedule •Measured via self‐reported questionnaire at 4–7 months	•Rapid weight gain defined as weight for age z‐score above 0.67 SD from birth to baseline •Standardised by WHO multicentre growth reference population (2006) •Weight directly measured at baseline (4–7 months), birth weight collected from hospital records at recruitment	•Feeding on schedule was associated with rapid weight gain (statistically significant)	****
•Gaffney et al., 2012 •The United States •Infant feeding practice Study II	•Longitudinal postal survey	•N = 691 •51% female •52.1% of infants has “low” (<20% of all milk feeds) breastfeeding intensity for the period of 6–12 months infant age	•Bottle to bed practice •Measured via self‐reported questionnaire at 6, 7, 9, 10, & 12 months	•Weight for age z‐score •Standardised using CDC reference population (2000) •Weight reported by mother at 12 month survey	•Did not find a statistically significant result between bottle to bed and weight for age z‐score	***
•Gibbs & Forste, 2014 •The United States •Early childhood •Longitudinal study	•Nationally representative longitudinal study	•N = 8,030 (original sample 10,500—excluded case of missing variables) •49% Female •31% Infants predominately formula fed; 54% mixed with breast and formula milk to 6 months	•Bottle to bed practice •Measured via home interview survey at 9 months	•Weight for age percentile, weight for age > 98th percentile defined as early obesity •Standardised using WHO reference population (2006) •Weight directly measured at 24 months	•Bottle to bed practice was associated with an increased odds ratio of early obesity at 24 months (statistically significant)	****
•Hopkins et al., 2015 •UK •Child in focus sub study of the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children	•Longitudinal study	•N = 1,112 (82% of child in focus sub study that had full dietary data), (N = 845 for 18 month outcome data) •45% Female •74.1% Of infants formula fed at 8 months	•Amount of formula consumed at 8 months considered low if <600 ml/day or high if ≥600 ml/day •Measured by a 3‐day unweighed food diary completed by parent	•Weight for age & BMI z‐scores, rapid weight gain z‐score above 0.67 SD from birth to 2 years •Standardised using the UK (1990) growth reference •Weight directly measured at 4, 8, & 18 months	•Compared with breast fed infants, infants in low formula group were 0.27 SD heavier and high formula group 0.41 SD heavier at 18 months •Similar proportion of children experiencing rapid weight gain in the formula milk high group (30.7%) and formula milk low groups (29%)	***
•Cartagena et al., 2016 •The United States	•Cross sectional	•N = 62 •55% female •72% of sample formula fed purposeful recruitment from WIC immigrant Latina population	•Bottle to bed practice and rice cereal in bottle practice •Measured at home visit infant age 4–12 months	•Weight for length •Standardised using WHO reference population (2006) •Weight directly measured at 4–12 months	•Did not find a statistically significant result between bottle to bed or rice cereal in bottle and greater weight for length	**

^aThe MMAT provides a quality score based on four pertinent criteria for each study design, studies receive one * per each criteria met. Therefore, studies may meet the following:

^* One criterion.

^** Two criteria.

^*** Three criteria.

^**** All criteria.