Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of patient groups and non‐diabetes controls
| Non‐diabetes controls | Type 1 diabetes | P‐value | Type 1 diabetes without proliferative retinopathy | Type 1 diabetes with proliferative retinopathy | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | 49 | 104 | – | 53 | 51 |
| Age (years) | 36.7 ± 11.2 | 41.1 ± 8.9 | 0.009 | 37.8 ± 9.2 | 44.5 ± 7.1*† |
| Sex (men/women; % men) | 19/30 (38.8) | 41/63 (39.4) | 0.999 | 20/33 (37.7) | 21/30 (41.2) |
| Estimated IQa | 108.5 ± 11.7 | 108.5 ± 12.4 | 0.978 | 107.0 ± 11.2 | 110.2 ± 13.4 |
| Depressive symptomsb | 4.0 (0 – 37) | 7.0 (0 – 42) | 0.029 | 5.0 (0 – 31) | 8.0 (0 – 42) *† |
| BMI (km/m2) | 24.3 ± 3.6 | 25.2 ± 3.8 | 0.140 | 24.8 ± 3.5 | 25.6 ± 4.1 |
| Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 123.6 ± 11.3 | 131.3 ± 16.1 | 0.003 | 129.1 ± 14.7 | 133.6 ± 17.3* |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 77.4 ± 7.2 | 77.1 ± 9.2 | 0.886 | 78.2 ± 9.5 | 76.0 ± 8.7 |
| HbA1c (mmol/mol) | 34.2 ± 2.6 | 63.2 ± 12.1 | <0.001 | 61.7 ± 9.8* | 64.7 ± 14.1* |
| HbA1c (%) | 5.3 ± 0.2 | 7.9 ± 1.1 | <0.001 | 7.8 ± 0.9* | 8.1 ± 1.3*† |
| Hypertension (%)c | – | 47 (45.2) | – | 13 (24.5) | 34 (66.7) † |
| Anti‐hypertensive medication (%) | – | 38 (36.5) | – | 6 (11.3) | 32 (62.7) † |
| Cholesterol medication (%) | – | 27 (26.0) | – | 11 (20.8) | 16 (31.4) |
| Diabetes duration (years) | – | 27.8 ± 10.7 | – | 21.6 ± 9.3 | 34.3 ± 7.9† |
| Diabetes onset age (years) | – | 13.3 ± 9.0 | – | 16.2 ± 9.7 | 10.2 ± 7.2† |
| Proliferative retinopathy (%)d | – | 51 (49.0) | – | – | 51 (100) |
| Albuminuria (%)e | – | 14 (13.5) | – | – | 25 (49.0) |
| Neuropathy (%)f | – | 25 (24.0) | – | – | 14 (27.5) |
| BG before MRI (mmol/L) | – | 9.8 ± 4.2 | – | 10.5 ± 4.7 | 9.2 ± 3.6 |
| BG before NPA (mmol/L) | – | 8.5 ± 4.0 | – | 8.4 ± 4.0 | 8.6 ± 4.0 |
| Severe hypoglycemic events (min–max)g | – | 2.0 (0–50) | – | 2.0 (0–50) | 2.0 (0–40) |
| Whole‐brain ECM (*10−3) | 7.9723 ± 0.008 | 7.9727 ± 0.008 | 0.805 | 7.9703 ± 0.010 | 7.9752 ± 0.005† |
| Relative displacement before scrubbing (mm) | 0.076 ± 0.04 | 0.080 ± 0.05 | 0.685 | 0.071 ± 0.04 | 0.088 ± 0.05 |
| Relative displacement after scrubbing (mm) | 0.026 ± 0.007 | 0.026 ± 0.008 | 0.976 | 0.025 ± 0.005 | 0.027 ± 0.009 |
| Scrubbed volumes (min–max) | 10 (1–36) | 9 (0–25) | 0.729 | 10 (2–23) | 9 (0–25) |
Data are means ± standard deviation, median with minimum and maximum or absolute numbers with percentages. NPA: neuropsychological assessment. BG: blood glucose.
*Significantly different from controls.
†Significantly different from patients without proliferative retinopathy.
Estimated IQ was measured using the Dutch version of the National Adult Reading Test (NART).
Depressive symptoms were measured using the Center for Epidemiological Studies scale for Depression.
Hypertension was defined as a systolic blood pressure of ≥140 mm Hg, a diastolic blood pressure of ≥90 mm Hg or the user of antihypertensive drugs. Controls with hypertension were excluded from the study.
Proliferative retinopathy was defined as a EURODIAB classification of 4 or 5.
Albuminuria was defined as an ACR >2.5 mg/mmol for men and >3.5 mg/mmol for women.
Neuropathy was based on medical records or, in case they were not available, based on self‐report.
Severe hypoglycemic events were self‐reported and defined as events for which the patient needs assistance from a third person to recuperate as a result of loss of consciousness or seriously deranged functioning, coma, or seizure owing to low glucose levels.