Table I.

Sentences used in this study

Stimulus	English translation
Sentence control (SC) condition
○‐to □‐ga neteiru	○ and □ lie
○‐to □‐ga tatteru	○ and □ stand
○‐to □‐ga aruiteru	○ and □ walk
○‐to □‐ga hashitteru	○ and □ run
○‐to □‐ga koronderu	○ and □ tumble
○‐to □‐ga naiteru	○ and □ cry
Active sentence (AS) condition
○‐ga □‐o hiiteru	○ pulls □
○‐ga □‐o oshiteru	○ pushes □
○‐ga □‐o shikatteru	○ scolds □
○‐ga □‐o ketteru	○ kicks □
○‐ga □‐o tataiteru	○ hits □
○‐ga □‐o yonderu	○ calls □
Passive sentence (PS) condition
□‐ga ○‐ni hikareru	□ is affected by ○'s pulling it
□‐ga ○‐ni osareru	□ is affected by ○'s pushing it
□‐ga ○‐ni shikarareru	□ is affected by ○'s scolding it
□‐ga ○‐ni kerareru	□ is affected by ○'s kicking it
□‐ga ○‐ni tatakareru	□ is affected by ○'s hitting it
□‐ga ○‐ni yobareru	□ is affected by ○'s calling it
Scrambled sentence (SS) condition
□‐o ○‐ga hiiteru	As for □,○ pulls it
□‐o ○‐ga oshiteru	As for □,○ pushes it
□‐o ○‐ga shikatteru	As for □,○ scolds it
□‐o ○‐ga ketteru	As for □,○ kicks it
□‐o ○‐ga tataiteru	As for □,○ hits it
□‐o ○‐ga yonderu	As for □,○ calls it

Only typical examples are shown here; other combinations among the symbols ○, □, and ▵ were also used. ga, nominative marker; o, accusative marker; ni, dative marker; and to, conjunction “and.”