TABLE 1.
Sample sources | Susceptibility to antibiotics | Mechanisms of AMR gene transfer | References |
Poultry fecal waste | The study indicated that poultry samples showed a high prevalence of CTX-M cluster 9 and blaTEM. | Horizontal transfer of ARGs by Bacteriophages | Colomer-Lluch et al., 2011 |
Composted poultry manure | Poultry manure applications increased AMR genes in the rhizosphere, root endophyte, and phyllosphere, suggesting poultry manure may have an impact on lettuce resistomes. | No mechanism reported. | Zhang et al., 2019 |
Poultry litter | 50% of these isolates were susceptible to ampicillin, 57% to erythromycin, 25% to tetracycline, 4% to chloramphenicol, 40% to kanamycin, 75% to streptomycin, 54% to tobramycin, and 4% to rifampicin. | Transformation and conjugation was reported as a mechanism for horizontal gene transfer between bacteria in poultry litter. | Sridevi Dhanarani et al., 2009 |
Poultry litter and soil | Out of the 13 antibiotics tested for E. coli, high (>70%) and similar (in the range of 10–15%) resistance against 7 antibiotics was observed in samples from both litter and agricultural soils where poultry litter applied. | No mechanism reported. | Bhushan et al., 2017 |
Poultry litter | The 86% of litter isolates (163 isolates in total) were resistant to more than one antibiotic. | No mechanism reported. | Furtula et al., 2013 |