Table 1.
Occurrence of aflatoxins in rice in Asia.from 1990 to 2015.
| Country, survey year | Type of rice | Origin of rice | Aflatoxins | Analytical Method | LOD/LOQ (μg/kg) | Incidence n (%) | Range (μg/kg) | Mean (μg/kg) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ASIA | |||||||||
| Bangladesh | Rice | Markets | AFB1 | HPLC | 0.2/0.5 | – | <LOD-0.9 | 0.3 | [131] |
| China | Rice | Stores, granaries, markets | AFB1 | DLLME-HPLC | 0.009/0.03 | 235/370 (63.5) | 0.03-20.0 | 0.06 ± 2.1 | [42] |
| AFB2 | 0.006/0.02 | 65/370 (18) | nd-1.6 | 0.15 ± 0.28 | |||||
| AFt | 235/370 (63.5) | 0.03-21.0 | 0.65 ± 2.3 | ||||||
| China | Rice | Household | AFB1 | ELISA | 0.01/- | 29/29 (100) | 0.1-1.4 | 0.5-0.6 | [43] |
| China | Rice | Local markets | AFB1 | HPLC-FD | 0.012/- | 16/84 (19) | 0.15-3.22 | – | [44] |
| India | Parboiled rice | Markets | AFB1 | HPTLC | 5.0/- | 581/1511 (38.5) | <LOD-361 | – | [45] |
| India | Paddy rice and milled rice | Markets | AFB1 | ELISA | 0.02ppt/- | 814/1200 (67.8) | 0.1-308 | – | [46] |
| Indonesia | Rice products | Supermarket, traditional market | AFB1 | ELISA | – | 2/2 (100) | 2.0-7.0 | – | [47] |
| Iran | Rice | Markets | AFB1 | IAC, HPLC-FD | 0.008/0.025 | 27/30 (90) | <LOQ-15.15 | 2.9 ± 4.4 | [48] |
| Iran | Rice | Local markets | AFB1 | LC-MS/MS | -/0.3 | 14/65 (21.5) | <LOQ-30.83 | 3.90 | [50] |
| AFB2 | -/0.6 | 2/65 (3.1) | 0.6-1.26 | 0.93 | |||||
| Iran, 2007-2008 | Polished rice | Retail markets | AFB1 | IAC, HPLC-FD | 0.01/0.03 | 251/256 (98) | nd-5.8 | 1.4 ± 1.0 | [51] |
| AFt | 0.1-6.3 | 1.6 ± 1.1 | |||||||
| Iran | Rice | Local area | AFB1 | IAC, HPLC-FD | 0.2/0.6 | 180/261 (69) | 0.2-4.3 | 0.72 ± 0.73 | [49] |
| Korea, 2002 | Polished rice | Grocery markets | AFB1 | ELISA | – | 5/88 (6) | 1.8-7.3 | 4.3 | [8] |
| Malaysia | Red Rice | Shops | AFt | IAC, ELISA | – | 46/50 (92) | 0.6-77.3 | 14.7 ± 16.2 | [52] |
| Malaysia | Rice based | Supermarkets | AFB1 | ELISA | 0.2/0.35 | 9/13 (69.2) | 0.68-3.79 | 1.75 | [54] |
| Malaysia | Rice | Retail markets | AFt | HPLC | – | – | 3.7-96.3 | – | [53] |
| Pakistan | Rice | Vendors | AFB1 | TLC | 1.0/- | 250/262 (95.4) | 10.07-24.6 | 3.80 | [56] |
| AFB2 | 0.5/- | 20/262 (7.6) | 0.52-2.62 | 0.09 | |||||
| AFt | 250/262 (95.4) | 10.07-27.27 | 3.89 | ||||||
| Pakistan | SK basmati rice | City areas | AFB1 | HPLC-UV | 0.05/0.10 | -/361 (13.3) | 1.1-32.9 | – | [57] |
| Basmati rice | AFB1 | -/585 (18.3) | 1.0-15.4 | – | |||||
| Parboiled rice | AFB1 | -/70 (42.9) | 1.1-9.2 | – | |||||
| Broken rice | AFB1 | -/11 (36.4) | 2.1-25.3 | – | |||||
| Pakistan | Brwon rice | Export areas | AFB1 | HPLC-UV | 0.10/- | 105/200 (52) | – | 0.56 | [58] |
| White rice | 80/200 (40) | – | 0.49 | ||||||
| Parboiled rice | 70/119 (59) | – | 0.73 | ||||||
| Pakistan | Rice | Retail markets, local industries | AFB1 | IAC, HPLC-FD | 0.05/- | 38/68 (56) | – | 8.23 | [60] |
| AFt | 38/68 (56) | – | 19.54 | ||||||
| Pakistan | Rice and rice products | Local markets, shops, super stores | AFB1 | IAC, HPLC-FD | 0.04/0.20 | 73/208 (35) | 0.04-7.4 | 2.40 ± 0.43 | [55] |
| AFt | 0.04-7.4 | 2.40 ± 0.43 | |||||||
| Pakistan, 2013 | Rice | Local markets | AFB1 | IAC, HPLC-FD | 0.03/0.12 | 100/120 (83) | 0.21-10.54 | 3.56 | [83] |
| AFt | 0.14/0.38 | 100/120 (83) | 0.21-11.89 | 3.79 | |||||
| AFB1 | LC-MS/MS | 0.02/0.06 | 104/120 (87) | 0.10-10.88 | 3.73 | ||||
| AFt | 0.09/0.24 | 104/120 (87) | 0.10-12.39 | 3.89 | |||||
| Pakistan, 2010 | Rice | Retail markets, agriculture fields | AFt | HPLC-FD | 0.04/0.12 | 185/413 (45) | LOD-68.3 | 11.2 ± 3.91 | [59] |
| Philippines, 2003 | Brown and polished rice | Rice mill | AFB1 | IAC, HPLC | – | 74/78 (95) | nd-8.55 | 1.48 | [34] |
| AFB2 | – | 74/78 (95) | nd-0.33 | 0.08 | |||||
| AFG1 | – | 74/78 (95) | nd-0.93 | 0.08 | |||||
| AFt | 0.025/- | 74/78 (95) | nd-8.66 | 1.53 | |||||
| SriLanka | Parboiled rice | Mills | AFB1 | TLC and UV-FD | – | -/485 | nd-185 | – | [62] |
| Thailand, 2012-2013 | Rice | Markets, retail shops | AFB1 | IAC, HPLC-FD | 0.09/- | 83/240 (35) | <LOD-26.61 | – | [63] |
| Turkey, 2006 | Rice | Fields | AFt | ELISA | 1.0/- | 56/100 (56) | nd-21.4 | – | [39] |
| AFB1 | 58/100 (58) | nd-17.2 | – | ||||||
| Vietnam | Rice | – | AFB1 | HPLC-FD | 0.07/0.22 | 51/100 (51) | nd-29.8 | 3.31 | [61] |
| United Arab Emirates | Grain rice | household | AFB1 | HPLC-FD | – | 241/500 (48) | 1.2-16.5 | – | [64] |
DLLME-HPLC: Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction coupled to high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection, IAC: Immunoaffinity column, SPE: Solid phase extraction, nd: not detectable, LOD: limit of detection, LOQ: limit of quantification.
AFt: Aflatoxins total (ie. sum of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2), SK: Super Kernel.