Table 2.
Occurrence of aflatoxins in rice in Africa, America and Europe.from 1990 to 2015.
| Country, survey year | Type of rice | Origin of rice | Aflatoxins | Analytical Method | LOD/LOQ (μg/kg) | Incidence n (%) | Range (μg/kg) | Mean (μg/kg) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AFRICA | |||||||||
| Egypt | Rice grains | Local markets | AFB1 | IAC, HPLC-FD | 0.01/- | -/40 | nd-11.0 | – | [66] |
| AFt | nd-21.7 | – | |||||||
| Nigeria | Rice | Fields, storage, markets | AFB1 | HPLC | 0.02 | 21/21 (100) | 4.1–309.0 | 37.2 ± 14.0 | [37] |
| AFB2 | 0.01 | 21/21 (100) | 1.3–24.2 | 8.3 ± 1.1 | |||||
| AFG1 | 0.01 | 21/21 (100) | 5.5–76.8 | 22.1 ± 3.4 | |||||
| AFG2 | 0.06 | 19/21 (90) | 3.6–44.4 | 14.7 ± 2.5 | |||||
| AFt | 27.7–371.9 | 82.5 ± 16.9 | |||||||
| Ivory Coast | Rice | Markets | AFB1 | ELISA | – | 10/10 (100) | <1.5-10.0 | – | [65] |
| AMERICA | |||||||||
| Brazil, 2007-2009 | Rice | Rice mills | AFB1 | IAC, HPLC-FD | 0.03/- | 128/230 (55.7) | 0.08-180.7 | 9.1 | [71] |
| AFt | 0.01-0.03/- | 135/230 (58.7) | 0.11-207 | 13.3 | |||||
| Canada, 2008-2009 | Rice | Markets | AFB1 | IAC, HPLC-FD | 0.002/0.05 | 99/199 (49.7) | nd-7.1 | 0.36 0.18 |
[70] |
| Colombia | Rice and rice products | Supermarkets, Retails stores, Stock centres | AFB1 | LC-FD | 1.0 | 4/40 (10) | nd-13.6 | 7.1 | [72] |
| Ecuador | Paddy rice | Rice mills | AFB1 | IAC, UHPLC/TOFMS | 4.0/8.0 | 3/43 (6.9) | 4.9-47.4 | 20.6 | [73] |
| AFG1 | 7.0/14.0 | 1/43 (2.3) | 63.7 | – | |||||
| AFG2 | 3.0/5.0 | 1/43 (2.3) | 3.3 | – | |||||
| Polished rice | AFG1 | 1.0/1.0 | 1/46 (2.2) | 2.0 | – | ||||
| Mexico, 2008-2009 | Rice | Local stores Supermarkets |
AFt | IAC, HPLC-FD | 0.4-0.6/ 1.2-1.9 |
-/67 | – | 16.9 | [38] |
| EUROPE | |||||||||
| Austria | Rice | Market | AFB1 | IAC, HPLC-FD | 0.1/0.5 | 24/81 (29.6) | 0.45-9.86 | – | [67] |
| AFB2 | 0.15/0.5 | 1.5 | – | ||||||
| Scotland | Rice | Retail market | AFt | SPE, HPLC-FD | – | 1/3 (33.3) | 0.4-14.7 | 14.7 | [68] |
| Spain | Rice | Local stores Supermarkets |
AFt | IAC, HPLC-FD | 0.4-0.6/ 1.2-1.9 |
-/67 | 1.6-138.3 | 37.3 | [38] |
| Sweden | Rice | Retail market | AFt | IAC, HPLC-FD | -/0.1 | -/99 | nd-50.7 | – | [69] |
| AFB1 | nd-46.2 | – | |||||||
| AFB2 | nd-4.5 | – |
DLLME-HPLC: Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction coupled to high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection, IAC: Immunoaffinity column, SPE: Solid phase extraction, nd: not detectable, LOD: limit of detection, LOQ: limit of quantification.
AFt: Aflatoxins total (ie. sum of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2), SK: Super Kernel.