Table 1. Demographic, physical health and psychosocial characteristics of pregnant mothers enrolled in the birth cohort study (N = 1137).
| Variable | N | Black African | Mixed ancestry | Total | P-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (Mbekweni) | (TC Newman) | |||||
| Number of mothers | 628 (55) | 509 (45) | 1137 (100) | |||
| Median age at enrolment (years) | 1137 | 26.7 (22.3–31.6) | 24.7 (21.4–29.2) | 25.8 (22.0–30.8) | <0.001*** | |
| Currently employed | 1137 | 157 (25) | 149 (29) | 306 (27) | 0.106 | |
| Currently married or cohabiting | 1136 | 237 (38) | 221 (43) | 458 (40) | 0.105 | |
| Receiving social assistance (government grant) | 1135 | 306 (49) | 242 (48) | 548 (48) | 0.739 | |
| Highest Education Level attained | ||||||
| Primary | 1137 | 49 (8) | 37 (7) | 86 (8) | 0.038* | |
| Some secondary | 340 (54) | 266 (52) | 606 (53) | |||
| Completed secondary | 189 (30) | 183 (36) | 372 (33) | |||
| Any tertiary | 50 (8) | 23 (5) | 73 (6) | |||
| Average household income per month | ||||||
| <1000ZAR (71 USD) | 1137 | 263 (42) | 167 (33) | 430 (38) | <0.001*** | |
| 1000-5000ZAR (71–356 USD) | 299 (48) | 254 (50) | 553 (49) | |||
| >5000ZAR (>356 USD) | 66 (10) | 88 (17) | 154 (14) | |||
| SES Quartiles | ||||||
| Lowest SES | 1137 | 192 (31) | 88 (17) | 280 (25) | <0.001*** | |
| Low-moderate SES | 157 (25) | 133 (26) | 290 (25) | |||
| Moderate-high SES | 154 (25) | 136 (27) | 290 (25) | |||
| High SES | 125 (20) | 152 (30) | 277 (24) | |||
| Food Insecure | 1014 | 295 (53) | 83 (18) | 378 (37) | <0.001*** | |
| Physical health | ||||||
| Weight at enrolment (kg) | 1129 | 72 (61–85) | 60 (52–73) | 67 (57–81) | <0.001*** | |
| Height at enrolment (m) | 1122 | 1.60 (1.56–1.65) | 1.58 (1.54–1.62) | 1.59 (1.55–1.64) | <0.001*** | |
| BMI at enrolment (kg/m2) | 1117 | 28 (24–33) | 24 (21–29) | 26 (22–32) | <0.001*** | |
| HIV-infected | 1137 | 227 (36) | 16 (3) | 243 (21) | <0.001*** | |
| On ART | 238 | 220 (99) | 16 (100) | 236 (99) | 0.703 | |
| Median CD4 Count (cells/uL) | 205 | 408 (284–594) | 556 (347–677) | 411 (286–609) | 0.511 | |
| Undetectable Viral Load (<40 copies/mL) | 148 | 98 (72) | 3 (50) | 101 (70) | 0.257 | |
| Pregnancy | ||||||
| Primigravida | 1133 | 202 (32) | 197 (39) | 399 (35) | 0.022* | |
| Planned Pregnancy | 1134 | 176 (28) | 173 (34) | 349 (31) | 0.031* | |
| Pregnancy complications | ||||||
| Hypertension | 1130 | 30 (5) | 22 (4) | 52 (5) | 0.685 | |
| Eclampsia | 1130 | 1 (0) | 2 (0) | 3 (0) | 0.451 | |
| Pre-eclampsia | 1130 | 13 (2) | 14 (3) | 27 (2) | 0.472 | |
| Anemia | 1076 | 149 (25) | 85 (17) | 234 (22) | 0.002** | |
| Gestational Diabetes | 1129 | 6 (1) | 7 (1) | 13 (1) | 0.523 | |
| Asthma | 1130 | 6 (1) | 9 (2) | 15 (1) | 0.241 | |
| Lab test during pregnancy | ||||||
| Positive RPR | 1046 | 15 (2) | 12 (3) | 27 (3) | 0.745 | |
| Positive VDRL | 222 | 3 (7) | 8 (4) | 11 (5) | 0.468 | |
| Hemoglobin (g/dL) | 1065 | 11.1 (10.2–12.1) | 11.4 (10.4–12.5) | 11.2 (10.3–12.3) | 0.055 | |
| Psychosocial and Substance Use | ||||||
| EPDS (above threshold) | 994 | 124 (23) | 113 (25) | 237 (24) | 0.478 | |
| SRQ-20 (above threshold) | 994 | 92 (17) | 110 (24) | 202 (20) | 0.005** | |
| IPV (above threshold) | ||||||
| Emotional | 994 | 108 (20) | 157 (35) | 265 (27) | <0.001*** | |
| Physical | 994 | 110 (20) | 107 (24) | 217 (22) | 0.237 | |
| Sexual | 994 | 19 (4) | 49 (11) | 68 (7) | <0.001*** | |
| Alcohol use risk | ||||||
| No use | 992 | 486 (91) | 126 (28) | 612 (62) | <0.001*** | |
| Lower risk | 15 (3) | 259 (57) | 274 (28) | |||
| Moderate risk | 12 (2) | 65 (14) | 77 (8) | |||
| High risk | 24 (4) | 5 (1) | 29 (3) | |||
| Cotinine | ||||||
| Non-smoker | 1069 | 193 (33) | 55 (11) | 248 (23) | <0.001*** | |
| Passive smoker | 299 (51) | 179 (37) | 478 (45) | |||
| Active smoker | 89 (15) | 254 (52) | 343 (32) | |||
Notes: Medians (IQR ranges) are reported for maternal age, weight, height and BMI at enrolment, CD4 count, and hemoglobin. All other results show frequencies (percentages). SES = socioeconomic status; BMI = body mass index; ART = antiretroviral therapy; RPR = rapid plasma reagin test; VDRL = venereal disease research laboratory; EPDS = Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (validated in pregnancy); SRQ-20 = self-reporting questionnaire 20-item; IPV = intimate partner violence
*p<0.05
**p<0.01
***p<0.001