Table 2.

Comparison of climate adaptation-related actions for Fukuoka, Kobe and Hiroshima.

	Fukuoka	Kobe	Hiroshima
Population (January 2019)	1,582,368	1,526,639	1,199,543
Climate classification	Humid subtropical	Humid subtropical	Humid subtropical
First municipal climate change plan (as stated by city itself within current policy)	1994	2000	2003
Most recent municipal climate change plan	2016	2015	2017
Adaptation issues and countermeasures in most recent municipal climate plan	Flooding/heavy rainfall (engineering and river management, preparation of overflow reservoirs, public flood hazard maps and apps); pressure on water resources (water conservation advice for public, improve water provision infrastructure); heat risk (heatstroke advice for public, online real-time heat risk information, promote roof- and wall greening as part of wider greening and utilise wind corridors, water scattering, provision of cool shelters); biodiversity loss (preserve existing habitat, alien invasive species countermeasures, surveying); effects on agricultural produce (introduce new climate-resistant produce, changes to farming practices, information provision on habitat effects) (Fukuoka City, 2016a).	Heat risk (heat alerts and heatstroke advice for public via events, leaflets, posters and announcements; aim for green network and wind corridors); spread of infectious diseases via insects, water and plants (monitoring; risk communication via leaflets); effects on farming and fisheries (introduction of new species types, monitoring); flooding (river management, online rainfall maps); storm surges (sea defences and pumps); landslides (engineering, risk communication); biodiversity loss (species mapping with citizen observation; surveying; habitat protection) (Kobe City, 2015).	Debris flows and landslides; heat risk (heatstroke advice for public, aim for green network and wind corridors, promote roof- and wall greening, water scattering, provision of cool shelters); flooding; spread of infectious diseases; infrastructural damage. Stated that many climate risks considered within wider disaster prevention measures. Societal engagement for all climate risks: information on city homepage; create books for schools; hold symposia and seminars; train staff responsible for engagement. Promote collaboration with national government and universities to understand future effects (Hiroshima City, 2017).
Consideration of climate adaptation in most recent greenspace- and urban plans	Greenspace Plan (Fukuoka City, 2009c, Fukuoka City, 2009d) Mention of specific areas and actions (ACROS Fukuoka, greening of buildings) to mitigate heat island effects; Specific action point to mitigate heat island effect through urban greening in city centre. Supported by thermal images of specific locations (e.g. Tenjin Central Park), temperature data for other locations (e.g. Ohori Park), and map showing relationship between green ratio and temperature at neighbourhood level (data from research led by city government); Focused heat island mitigation action for Hakata-Tenjin core area, identifying wind corridors, ‘cool spots’, areas for greenery preservation, and buildings due for renewal; Survey of citizens shows urban heat mitigation second-biggest perceived value from greening; Mention of need to create/preserve wind corridors, with specific identification: Naka River, Watanabe Road, Taihaku Road; Statement of increase in green ratio for purpose of heat island mitigation; Encouragement of wall- and rooftop greening to mitigate heat island effects. Urban Plan (Fukuoka City, 2014) Mention of aim to reverse declining trend of greenery in city and develop green network to realise climate and heat mitigation benefits; Preservation of wind corridors from Hakata Bay, image of greenery in Tenjin Central Park; Provision of pumps and storage reservoirs for intensifying rainfall.	Greenspace Plan (Kobe City, 2011a) Mention of risk to lifestyles and livelihoods from biodiversity loss due to climate change; Survey of citizens shows urban heat mitigation biggest perceived value from greening; Land acquisition and tree planting for purpose of climate response; Plan to create wind/green corridor and associated green network from sea to Mt. Rokko to aid cooling. Urban Plan (Kobe City, 2011b) Inclusion of summer wind/temperature map produced by Kobe University, with explanation of value of creating wind corridor for cooling; Plan to create wind/green corridor and associated green network from sea to Mt. Rokko to aid cooling; Provision of wind corridor listed as benefit of actions (tree provision, protection of farmland, satoyama practice) across city; Pumping and storage ponds for heavy rainfall.	Greenspace Plan (Hiroshima City, 2011) Mention of need for heat island mitigation; City divided into 5 zones, with different greening actions in response to climate change listed for each: Island (preserve forests); Delta City (protect private greenery, including small-scale; encourage greening of roads, factories, and green walls and roofs); Aogaki mountain area (protect mountain forests to connect with Delta City greening and create a green infrastructure); New Town (conserve belts and islands of forest in urban areas; protect mountain forests during urban development); Inland Area (protect mountain forests including river banks). Urban Plan (Hiroshima City, 2013) Mention of need for response to rainfall intensification and associated flood risk; Mention of generic climate response benefits from biodiversity and environmental protection as part of parks and greenspace; Mention of heat island mitigation through greening: public space (schools, roads parks), citizen/private greening, forests; also protection of wind corridors (computer visualisation of street trees and green wall in Naka Ward).